THE    RURAL    SCHOOL 

ITS  METHODS  AND  MANAGEMENT 


BY 

HORACE    M.    CULTER 

PROFESSOR  OF  RURAL   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

KANSAS   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL 

EMPORIA,   KANSAS 

AND 

JULIA    M.    STONE 

TEACHER,  MODEL  RURAL  SCHOOL 

WESTERN   KANSAS    STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL 

HAYS,   KANSAS 


SILVER,  BURDETT  AND    COMPANY 
BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


"^  ^'^\'=\ 


Copyright,  1913,  by 
SILVER,  BURDETT  AND   COMPANY 


PREFACE 

The  present  treatise  on  school  methods  and  manage- 
ment is  intended  for  teachers  in  the  elementary  country 
schools  and  for  those  in  normal  and  high  schools  who 
expect  to  go  into  the  rural  schools  to  teach.  The  writer 
has  studiously  avoided  all  suggestions  especially  applica- 
ble to  the  management  of  city  schools,  and  has  pur- 
posely confined  himself  to  such  plans  and  methods  as  will 
be  suited  to  the  country  school.  While  consolidation  is 
an  important  movement,  and  many  more  weak  districts 
should  be  united,  yet  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  time  is  far  distant  when  the  one-room  country  school 
will,  or  should,  be  discontinued.  A  one-room  school  in 
the  rural  districts,  taught  by  a  competent  teacher,  is  still 
a  good  place  for  a  boy  or  girl  to  get  the  elements  of  an 
education. 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  re- 
ports that  in  the  school  year  1907-1908  there  were  five  and 
one  half  million  school  children  and  one  hundred  thirty- 
four  thousand  teachers  in  cities  of  four  thousand  or 
more  population;  in  the  outside  districts,  there  were 
eleven  million  children  and  three  hundred  sixty-one  thou- 
sand teachers.  In  the  state  of  Kansas  there  are  two  and 
one  third  times  as  many  children  in  the  one-  and  two- 
room  schools  and  nearly  five  times  as  many  teachers, 
as  there  are  in  the  cities  and  towns  maintaining  graded 
systems  of  schools.  From  the  above  it  seems  safe  to 
conclude  that  in  the  United  States  there  are  twice  as 

V 


vi  Preface 

many  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  and  nearly  twice  as 
many  children.  But,  up  to  the  present  time,  the  em- 
phasis has  been  placed  upon  city  school  management 
and  city  supervision,  and  many  of  the  suggestions  offered 
do  not  fit  rural  conditions  at  all.  It  is  the  country  teacher, 
especially,  who  needs  instruction  in  management.  The 
one-room  rural  school  with  the  six  to  nine  grades  and 
twenty  to  twenty-five  or  more  classes,  is  a  much  more 
complex  institution  to  manage  than  is  the  one  room  of  a 
city  system.  And  if  it  were  not,  the  city  teacher  is  placed 
at  a  much  greater  advantage  than  the  country  teacher, 
for  if  assistance  is  needed,  the  city  teacher  may  call 
to  her  aid  the  principal  of  the  building,  or  he  may 
consult  the  superintendent.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
country  teacher  must  be  at  the  same  time  teacher,  prin- 
cipal and  superintendent.  When  in  need,  she  may  on 
Saturday  drive  ten  or  twenty  miles  and  interview  the 
county  superintendent;  or,  if  in  dire  distress,  at  the  risk 
of  her  reputation  as  a  teacher,  she  may  ask  that  the 
superintendent  come  to  her  school  and  assist  in  settling 
some  difficulty. 

But  an  awakening  interest  in  rural  schools  is  evident 
on  every  hand,  and  many  are  coming  to  believe  not  only 
that  there  should  be  better  supervision  in  the  rural  dis- 
trict, but  also  that  the  boy  and  the  girl  of  the  country 
should  have  as  good  school  privileges  as  the  boy  and  the 
girl  of  the  city.  The  environment  of  the  country  school 
is  better,  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  young  people  of 
the  rural  district  make  them  more  receptive  of  educational 
advantages;  there  is  less  to  distract  from  the  school 
and  its  interests;  yet  many  of  the  schools  of  the  country 
are  far  behind  the  schools  of  the  city.  The  truth  of  this 
statement  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  many  farmers  move 
to  town  every  year  that  they  may  send  their  children 


Preface  vii 

to  school.  Again,  six  months  of  school  in  the  country- 
are  not  the  equivalent  of  nine  months  in  the  city,  and 
this  is  about  the  proportion  of  educational  advantages 
offered  in  many  of  our  states.  In  order  that  the  country 
child  may  have  as  good  school  privileges  as  the  city 
child,  the  country  must  have  better  schoolhouses  and 
equipment;  better  supervision  and  more  of  it;  longer 
terms  of  school;  courses  of  study  in  harmony  with  rural 
conditions;  and  better  teachers  who  have  been  trained 
for  rural  school  work. 

Besides  school  management,  the  rural  teacher  needs 
to  know  better  methods,  especially  in  primary  subjects. 
Realizing  this  deficiency,  a  few  chapters  in  primary 
methods,  by  Miss  Stone,  have  been  added,  which  are 
adapted  to  the  work  of  country  schools. 

Out  of  an  experience  of  many  years  as  a  teacher  in 
rural,  village  and  county  high  schools,  and  as  a  teacher 
of  teachers,  have  the  pages  of  this  book  been  written; 
and  it  is  offered  to  the  public  with  the  hope  that  it  may 
add  its  mite  to  the  improvement  of  rural  schools. 

A  SUGGESTION 

While  this  book  is  intended  primarily  for  elementary 
teachers,  a  more  advanced  study  of  the  subjects  con- 
tained in  Part  One  may  be  had  by  supplementing  the 
study  of  the  book  with  the  use  of  the  reference  bibliog- 
raphy which  follows  each  chapter.  Such  a  course,  well 
done,  will  give  advanced  students  quite  a  comprehen- 
sive view  of  Rural  School  Management. 

Horace  M.  Culter. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

In  treating  so  many  subjects  as  are  contained  in  this 
book,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  any  one  or  two  per- 
sons can  be  authority  on  all.  As  the  reader  peruses  these 
pages,  he  \vill  observe  that  many  persons  have  contrib- 
uted to  the  contents  of  this  book.  To  these  the  authors 
express  their  grateful  appreciation. 

But  special  acknowledgment  is  due  Joseph  H.  Hill, 
president  of  the  Kansas  State  Normal  School,  for  his 
hearty  encouragement  throughout  the  preparation  of 
this  volume;  to  Professor  R.  H.  Ritchie,  head  of  the 
Speech  Arts  Department  of  the  Kansas  State  Normal 
School,  for  his  careful  work  in  correcting  the  manu- 
script; to  Professor  Frank  A.  Beach,  director  of  music 
of  the  Kansas  State  Normal  School,  for  writing  the 
chapter  on  Music;  to  Professor  W.  G.  Lewis,  formerly 
professor  of  physics,  for  the  chapter  on  Nature  Study; 
to  Mrs.  Emily  K.  Hoelcel,  for  many  helpful  suggestions 
and  for  her  work  in  criticising  the  chapters  on  Methods; 
to  Mr.  C.  J.  Brown  of  Louisiana,  for  valuable  sugges- 
tions; and  to  Willis  H.  Kerr,  of  the  Kansas  Normal 
School  library;  to  the  Smith  Heating  Company  and  to 
the  Waterman-Waterbury  Heating  Company  for  illus- 
trative material;  to  the  authors  of  "Farm  Life  Readers" 
for  four  illustrations  from  those  books;  and  to  many 
others  who  have  so  kindly  made  suggestions  and  con- 
tributed material  for  the  various  chapters  of  the  book. 
They  are  deserving  of  a  share  of  credit  for  whatever 
merit  this  volume  may  have  and  for  whatever  success 
may  attend  it. 

viii 


CONTENTS 

Part  I 
RURAL  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 


CHAPTER 


FAGB 


I.     The  Rural  School  a  Laggard 1 

II.     School  Site  and  Grounds 5 

Choosing   the   Site  —  The   School    Grounds  —  A 
School  Plant. 

III.  The  House 13 

The   Need   of   Better   School   Buildings  —  Three 
Types  of  Houses  —  Equipment. 

IV.  School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation        ....       28 

Precautions  against  Germs  ^  Correcting  Physical 
Defects  —  Lighting  and  Seating  —  Ventilation. 

V.     The  Teacher  —  His  Qualifications  ....       45 
Physical     Equipment  —  Mental     Equipment  — 
Attention  to  Business  Details. 

VI.     The  Teacher  —  His  Personality       ....       56 
The  Development  of  a  Strong  Personality. 

VII.     The  First  Day 63 

Preparation    for    the    First    Day  —  Methods    of 
Procedure  for  the  First  Day. 

VIII.     The  Daily  Program 71 

The  Study  Prograjn  —  Arrangement  of  Classes. 

IX.     The  Recitation 81 

Purposes  of  the  Recitation  —  Mechanics  of  the 
Recitation. 

X.     The  Recitation  (confimied) .93 

Devices  of  the* Recitation  —  Methods  of  the  Reci- 
tation —  Induction  and  Deduction. 

XI.     Teaching  Pupils  How  to  Study        ....     101 
Stages  in  the  Art  of  Study  —  Hints  on  Stud}-mg. 

XII.     Play  and  Playgrounds 112 

The  Function  of  Play  —  How  the  School  Should 
Provide  for  Play. 

is 


X  Contents 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIII.  The  Library  and  Its  Uses 125 

Acquiring  a  Library  —  What  to  Buy  —  Using 
the  Library  —  Suggested  Plan  of  Organiza- 
tion for  Small  School  Library  —  A  Working 
Library  for  Country  Schools. 

XIV.  School  Government 143 

Aids  to  School  Government  —  The  Infliction 
of  Punishments  —  Corporal  Punishment  as 
Viewed  by  the  Courts  —  Placing  Pupils  on 
their  Honor  —  The  Psychology  of  Motor  Ac- 
tivities —  The  Use  of  Incentives. 

XV.     School  Ethics 159 

The  Need  of  Ethical  Teaching  —  Methods  of 
Ethical  Teaching. 

XVI.     Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools       ....     169 
Overcoming  Obstacles  • —  Outline  of  Work  for 
a  Rural   School  —  A   Lesson   Plan  —  School 
Gardens  —  Contests  and   Clubs  —  The  View 
Point  of  the  Country. 

XVII.     Duties  of  the  Teacher 184 

To  the  District  —  To  Pupils  —  To  the  County 
Superintendent  —  To  the  Neighborhood  — 
To  Self. 

XVIII.     The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher       .        .     200 
The  Lesser  Opport.imities  —  The  Great  Oppor- 
tunities —  What  Has  been  Accomplished  by 
Teachers  in  Country  Schools. 

XIX.     Consolidation 222 

Changed   Conditions  —  Origin   of  the   District 
Unit  —  Evils  of  the  District  System  —  The 
Larger  Unit  —  Reports  in  Regard  to  Consoli- 
dation in  Several  States  —  Standardization  of 
^  the  Schools  —  Requirements  for  a  Standard 

School. 

Part  n 

RURAL  SCHOOL  METHODS 

I.     Primary  Reading .     245 

Importance  of  Reading  —  Kinds  of  Reading  — 
Methods  of  Teaching  Reading. 

II.     Primary  Reading  (continued) 254 

The  Combined  Method  —  Practical  Suggestions. 

HI.     Language  Work 266 

Elementary  Grammar  —  Language  Proper. 


Contents  xi 

CHAFTEB  PAGB 

IV.    Busy  Work,  What  and  How 282 

Busy  Work  for  Younger  Pupils  —  Busy  Work 
for  Older  Pupils. 

V.     Numbers 295 

The  Nuraber  Idea  —  Objects  of  Number  Teach- 
ing, 

;       VI.     Learning  to  Write 310 

^  Teacliing     the     Beginners  —  Materials  —  Dis- 

cussion of   Methods. 

VII.     Drawing 319 

How  to  Begin  —  Perspective  —  Scene  Drawing 
—  Suggestive  Drawings  for  the  Different 
Months  — •  Paper-cutting    and    Design. 

VIII.     Music .337 

Importance  —  Equipment  —  Teaching  in 
Groups  —  Appreciation  of  Music. 

IX.     Physical  Science 349 

Interest  of  the  Subject  —  Lesson  I:  Why  Hot 
Air  Goes  Up  the  Chimney  —  Lesson  II: 
Physiology  —  Lesson  III:  Air  Pressure  — 
Subjects  for  other  Lessons  —  The  Fairy  Chil- 
dren of  the  Ocean. 

X.     Geography 360 

Suggestions  for  Oral  or  Primary  Geography  — 
Map  Study  —  The  Text  Reinforced  —  Ad- 
vanced Geography. 


PART  I 
RURAL   SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT 


The  Rural  School 

Chapter  I 
THE  RURAL    SCHOOL    A    LAGGARD 

Some  writers  and  lecturers  are  inclined  to  picture  the 
rural  school  of  to-day  in  a  decadent  and  dilapidated  con- 
dition. They  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  country 
school, of  our  forefathers  was  a  much  better  school  than 
the  country  school  of  the  present  time.  Although  there 
are  a  few  respects  in  which  the  schools  of  three  or  four 
decades  ago  were  better  than  the  schools  of  the  present, 
the  truth  seems  to  be  not  that  they  were,  necessarilj'^, 
better  schools,  but  that  they  were  more  nearly  on  a  par 
with  the  conditions  of  country  life. 

In  many  respects,  the  twentieth-century  rural  school 
is  far  in  advance  of  the  schools  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  houses  are  better,  and  better  equipped;  the  teachers, 
though  younger,  are  better  educated;  the  curriculum  is 
richer  and  more  nearly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  child  life; 
the  school  term  is  longer  and  the  advantages  of  school  are 
more  nearly  within  reach  of  every  child.  There  remain 
comparatively  few  of  the  old  log  or  sod  schoolhouses  of 
pioneer  days.  Modern  furniture  has  replaced  the  uncom- 
fortable and  unhygienic  furniture  made  by  our  fore- 
fathers. The  painted  blackboard  has  given  place  to  a 
good  composition  blackboard  or  to  real  slate.    There  are 

1 


> 


2  The  Rural  School 

more  maps,  charts  and  illustrative  material  than  were 
in  use  in  the  old  school. 

The  true  basis  of  complaint  is  not  that  the  rural  school 
has  not  improved,  hut  that  it  has  not  kept  and  is  not  keep- 
ing, step  with  the  onward  progress  of  our  civilization.  It 
is  a  laggard  in  the  race  with  its  sister,  the  city  school. 

While  city  school  boards  have  been  willing  to  expend 
large  sums  of  money  for  good  locations  for  buildings,  in 
some  instances  paying  fabulous  prices  for  land  and  even 
going  to  the  roofs  for  garden  space  and  play  room,  the 
rural  school  has  been  expecting  some  one  to  donate  land 
for  a  site,  and  has  been  willing  to  go  to  an  unfavorable 
location  in  order  that  forty  or  fifty  dollars  might  be  saved 
to  the  district.  The  city  schools  have  planted  flowers 
and  trees,  have  made  lawns  and  watered  them,  and  have 
hired  janitors  for  the  whole  year  in  order  that  these  might 
be  properly  safeguarded.  On  the  other  hand,  to  a  great 
extent  rural  communities  have  considered  these  things 
all  right  for  the  city,  but  have  not  even  given  them  a 
thought  as  being  a  part  of  the  country  school  equipment. 

While  the  cities  have  been,  and  are  still,  putting  thou- 
sands of  dollars  into  beautiful  school  buildings,  equipped 
with  every  modern  convenience,  sanitary  and  comfort- 
able to  the  highest  degree;  the  country  has  thought  itself 
well  equipped  if  it  had  a  structure  of  the  "  Box  Car  " 
type.  Little  or  no  thought  has  been  given  to  lighting  and 
heating  according  to  modern  methods.  Although  the 
city  has  been  using  single  desks  in  its  buildings  for  years, 
and  is  trying  adjustable  chairs  and  desks  of  latest  pat- 
tern, the  rural  schools  seem  to  think  that  the  double  desk 
is  the  only  one  manufactured.  The  city  has  invested  much 
thought  and  no  little  expense  in  the  architectural  beauty 
of  the  buildings;  the  country  seems  to  think  that  if  the 
building  is  painted,  sufficient  money  has  been  expended. 


The  Rural  School  a  Laggard  3 

While  the  city  has  been  spending  money  freely  in  order 
to  install  sanitary  closets,  the  country  has  just  passed 
the  stage  of  two-closets-in-one-building  style,  and  has 
just  reached  the  place  where  every  school  ground  has  two 
outhouses,  one  for  each  sex.  No  city  plans  a  building 
without  providing  for  a  system  of  ventilation.  Often  a 
large  part  of  the  expense  is  for  heating  and  ventilation,  — 
some  even  washing  the  air  before  forcing  it  into  the 
schoolrooms.  Yet,  up  to  the  present  time,  the  friendly 
cracks  have  furnished  inlets  for  most  of  the  fresh  air  in 
country  school  buildings. 

While  the  cities  are  demanding  well  educated  and  thor- 
oughly trained  teachers,  often  not  accepting  a  teacher 
until  he  has  proved  himself  by  two  or  three  years'  ex- 
perience; the  country  has  been  giving  these  teachers 
opportunities  to  make  their  initial  trials  in  its  schools, 
and,  if  they  are  successful,  it  has  allowed  them  to  go  into 
the  city,  simply  because  the  city  would  pay  more  than 
the  country  was  willing  to  pay.  This  has  resulted  in 
giving  the  city  the  advantage  of  the  experienced  teacher 
and,  as  a  rule,  the  teacher  of  strong  personality. 

While  the  cities  are  spending  millions  for  playgrounds 
and  their  equipment,  the  country  has  done  almost  noth- 
ing along  this  line.  The  cities  are  buying  land  in  the 
heart  of  the  most  populous  districts,  establishing  play 
centers  there  and  furnishing  superintendents  and  direct- 
ors of  play.  Up  to  the  present  time  most  people  have 
thought  that  play  has  but  one  beneficial  result,  —  that 
of  furnishing  exercise  to  the  individual,  and  that  the 
country  boy  and  girl  get  plenty  of  exercise  in  their  work, 
and  therefore  need  no  play.  "  The  country  is  dominated 
hy  work."  It  has  lost,  in  large  measure,  the  play  spirit 
and  has  too  often  substituted  evil  and  vice;  until  no  longer 
is  tne  country  a  safe  moral  retreat  for  boys  and  girls, 


4  The  Rural  School 

While  the  cities,  under  great  disadvantages,  have  been 
teaching  natux-e,  the  country  has  done  little,  though  sur- 
rounded on  every  hand  by  nature's  handiwork.  While 
all  city  schools,  worthy  the  name,  have  libraries  more  or 
less  well  equipped,  many  schools  of  the  country  have  no 
semblance  of  one,  not  even  a  dictionary.  While  the  cities 
long  ago  realized  the  importance  of  consolidation  and 
concentration  of  forces,  in  order  that  expert  supervision 
might  be  employed,  the  country  is  just  beginning  to 
realize  that  the  consolidated  school  is  a  desirable  type  for 
rural  communities. 

But  there  is  a  brighter  day  coming  for  rural  education. 
School  men  everywhere  are  thinking,  talking,  and  plan- 
ning for  the  rural  school.  It  is  beginning  to  be  realized 
that  there  are  advantages  to  be  derived  from  life  in  the 
country  which  cannot  be  duplicated  by  city  life;  that  the 
country  school,  though  a  laggard,  has  some  good  features 
which,  if  utilized,  make  for  good  citizenship  and  noble 
manhood.  No  well  informed  person  can  deny  that  the 
product  of  these  country  schools  has  resulted,  in  many 
instances,  in  the  highest  type  of  American  manhood  and 
womanhood.  All  that  seems  to  be  needed,  in  order  to 
bring  the  country  school  to  a  degree  of  efficiency  commen- 
surate with  its  opportunities,  is  an  awakened  sentiment 
on  the  part  of  country  people  which  will  demand  for  the 
rural  schools  of  this  country,  (1)  a  better  and  more  effi- 
cient organization,  (2)  closer  and  more  effective  supervis- 
ion, and  (3)  more  competent  and  better  trained  teachers. 

As  stated  in  the  preface,  it  is  not  within  the  province 
of  this  book  to  treat  all  these  subjects;  but  rather  to 
limit  the  discussion  to  methods  and  management,  adapted 
to  rural  conditions,  so  that  the  young  teacher  who  goes 
into  the  country  may  be  forewarned  and  forearmed. 


Chapter  II 

SCHOOL    SITE    AND    GROUNDS 

CHOOSING  THE  SITE 

Selfish  Motives.  —  Where  the  schoolhouse  shall  be 
located  has  been  the  source  of  numerous  contentions, 
which,  in  many  cases,  have  lasted  for  years.  Ofttimes 
these  contentions  have  set  neighbor  against  neighbor, 
and  have  resulted  in  great  detriment  to  the  school  inter- 
ests, because  they  have  been  fostered  by  selfish  motives 
and  have  not  been  based  on  broad  economic  and  hygienic 
principles.  In  the  selection  of  the  present  sites  for  school- 
houses,  one  idea  seems  to  have  prevailed,  and  that  idea 
has  been  to  get  the  schoolhouse  as  near  to  "  my  farm  "  as 
possible.  Apparently,  no  thought  has  been  taken  with 
regard  to  the  suitableness  of  the  soil,  slope  of  the  ground, 
or  its  elevation  or  depression. 

The  Idea  of  Centrality.  —  Although  the  house  should 
be  located  near  the  center  of  the  district,  there  are  other 
considerations.  This  principle  of  centrality  is  not  so 
binding  that,  in  order  to  place  the  house  in  the  center  of 
a  district,  it  be  located  in  a  pine  woods  or  in  the  middle 
of  a  pasture,  where  the  children  will  be  in  danger  of  being 
maimed  by  the  cattle,  and  where  it  can  be  reached  only 
by  leaving  the  public  highway;  or  that  it  be  set  on  top 
of  a  hill  where  nothing  except  a  few  rocks  have  been  able 
to  remain,  the  thought  being,  no  doubt,  that  since  noth- 

5 


6 


The  Rural  School 


ing  else  will  grow  there,  surely  the  tree  of  knowledge  will; 
or  finally,  that  it  be  situated  in  a  low,  marshy  place  where 
the  mud  will  be  a  source  of  annoyance  and  inconvenience 
for  a  large  part  of  the  year. 

The  schoolhouse  ought  to  be  located  near  a  public  road, 
in  a  place  accessible  to  all  in  the  district.  The  soil  ought 
to  be  the  richest  the  district  affords,  such,  at  least,  as  will 
produce  grass,  flowers  and  trees.    This  will  preclude  the 


THERE   SHOULD   BE   A    PLOT  FOR  A   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


hilltop  where  there  is  no  soil.  It  should  not  be  in  low 
swampy  ground,  but  in  a  place  well  drained.  The  people 
should  realize  that  as  they  are  establishing  a  plant  in 
which  to  grow  boys  and  girls,  everything  ought  to  be  of 
the  highest  quality  available. 

Size.  —  The  regulation  size  of  the  school  ground  in  one 
western  prairie  state  is  one  acre.  Provided  that  the 
school  is  small  and  th(Te  are  no  large  boys  and  girls  that 
need  room  for  their  various  games,  and  provided  that  no 
attention  is  to  be  paid  to  experimental  agriculture  or 


School  Site  and  Grounds  7 

school  gardening,  this  is  large  enough.  If  the  pupils  are 
to  play  "  ante-over,"  "  black  man  "  and  "  tag,"  this  plot 
will  do.  But  if  there  are  to  be  flowers,  trees,  a  place  for 
the  little  ones  to  play,  and  a  playground  for  the  older 
ones,  an  acre  is  not  enough.  If  there  is  to  be  a  plot  for  a 
school  garden,  a  piece  of  land  for  experimental  agriculture, 
and  room  for  stables  for  the  horses  of  those  who  drive  to 
school,  an  acre  is  not  nearly  enough. 

For  a  good-sized  district  school,  there  ought  to  be  from 
an  acre  and  one  half  to  two  acres;  for  a  consolidated 
school  or  a  very  large  district  school,  especially  where 
agriculture  and  school  gardening  are  to  be  taught,  there 
should  be  not  less  than  three  acres.  This  will  give  room 
for  the  house,  playgrounds  for  the  little  folks,  temiis 
court,  baseball  diamond,  stables  and  sheds,  plots  for 
agriculture  and  gardens. 

THE   SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

Plan  of  School  Grounds. —  Where  feasible,  the  house 
should  be  situated  at  a  crossroad.  It  will  then  be  more 
accessible  to  patrons  of  the  district,  and  a  corner  makes  a 
better  location  for  the  grounds.  The  house  should  be 
placed  near  one  corner  of  the  lot,  leaving  a  small  L-shaped 
place  between  the  house  and  the  sides  of  the  lot  for  trees, 
grass  and  flowers.  A  four-foot  walk  should  lead  from  the 
road  to  the  main  entrance.  This  may  be  made  by  using 
two-by-fours  for  the  edges,  and  filling  in  between  with 
coal  cinders  and  salt.  This  will  in  time  pack  into  quite 
a  hard  surface,  and  is  much  better  than  no  walk.  The 
cost  of  such  a  walk  is  insignificant.  Of  course,  cement  or 
brick  is  the  better  material. 

If  the  water-closets  are  to  be  separate  from  the  build- 
ing, a  walk  should  lead  to  each  from  its  side  of  the  house. 


8  The  Rural  School 

The  closets  should  face  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
house.  In  front  of  each  and  extending  back  on  the  sides 
next  to  the  house,  there  should  be  latticework  completely- 
screening  the  doors  from  the  road  and  the  house.  Morn- 
ing-glories, or  some  other  vine,  may  be  planted  to  run 
over  this  latticework.  Good  screens  may  be  made  by 
using  common  boards  in  place  of  the  latticework.  These 
should  be  capped  by  a  two-by-four  and  a  strip  of  mould- 
ing, and  the  whole  should  be  well  painted.  Vines  here 
and  at  a  window  or  over  the  coal  house  will  add  much  to 
the  looks  of  the  yard.  The  well  should  be  located  at  one 
side  and  convenient  to  the  front  door.  The  stables  and 
sheds  should  be  at  the  back  of  the  lot. 

Trees.  —  A  school  ground  will  not  be  complete  without 
shrubs  and  trees.  Why  are  there  not  more  trees  around 
schoolhouses?  Simply  because  no  one  has  been  interested 
in  having  them  planted.  Who  must  make  the  start? 
The  teacher  will  have  to  be  the  prime  mover  in  the  enter- 
prise. Let  the  teacher  call  to  his  assistance  the  boys  and 
girls  of  the  school.  Getting  them  interested  in  plant- 
ing a  tree  is  worth  as  much  or  more  than  the  planted  tree. 
Old  men  like  to  plant  trees,  young  men  do  not  seem  to 
have  time,  or  think  that  it  will  be  too  long  before  the 
tree  will  mature.  The  old  men  and  the  young  people  of 
the  school  can  be  interested  in  observing  Arbor  Day.  In 
his  book  "  Among  Country  Schools,"  Supt.  O.  J.  Kern 
has  this  to  say  about  observing  Arbor  Day:  "  Let  us  ob- 
serve Arbor  Day  in  every  school  with  appropriate  songs 
and  exercises;  but  let  us  not  forget  to  plant  when  planting 
needs  to  be  done.  For  schools  whose  premises  are  tree- 
less the  proper  thing  to  do  would  be  to  dig  rather  than 
sing,  if  only  one  could  be  done  in  a  day.  What  is  the 
use  of  singing  about  trees  and  ending  with  that,  when 
planting  and  caring  for  trees  is  needed? 


School  Site  and  Grounds 


9 


"  No,  Arbor  Day  has  not  been  observed  m  the  proper 
spirit,  when  some  afternoon  a  Httle  boy  recites,  '  What 
Do  We  Plant  When  We  Plant  the  Tree,'  a  class  of  girls 
sing,  '  The  Brave  Old  Oak,'  and  then  all  go  to  work  on 


THE    UMBRELLA    TREE 
A  good  shade  tree  of  the  South 


the  arithmetic  lesson,  leaving  the  ground  as  desolate  as 
it  was  before." 

The  kind  of  trees  to  be  planted  will  be  suggested  by 
the  trees  that  grow  in  the  neighboring  forests  and  are 
cultivated  for  shade  in  the  dooryards  of  the  neighborhood. 
In  many  parts  of  the  middle  west,  the  problem  is  not  so 


10  The  Rural  School 

much  what  to  plant,  as  how  to  get  the  trees  to  live  after 
they  are  planted.  Of  course  where  there  is  not  rain  dur- 
ing the  summer  months,  and  scarcely  any  during  the 
winter,  trees  will  not  grow  without  irrigation.  In  the 
semi-arid  districts  there  are  three  ways  of  growing  trees: 
first,  by  watering  them;  second,  by  cultivating  the 
ground,  keeping  down  all  the  weeds  and  keeping  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  loose  and  mellow;  third,  by  mulching 
with  a  heavy  coat  of  straw  or  hay,  or  something  that  will 
conserve  the  moisture  that  falls.  The  first  of  these  plans 
could  be  used  for  a  few  trees  by  having  a  windmill  to 
pump  the  water;  then,  if  the  ground  were  so  arranged 
that  a  ditch  would  lead  the  water  from  one  tree  to  an- 
other, with  a  very  little  care  the  trees  could  be  watered 
throughout  the  summer.  The  second  way  is  hardly  prac- 
tical in  the  ordinary  district,  but  the  third  could  be  easily 
carried  out.     One  mulching  a  year  would  be  sufficient. 

The  hardiest  tree  for  the  western  plains  is  the  honey 
locust.  It  will  live  through  more  drought,  and  will  sur- 
vive with  less  care  than  any  other  that  has  been  tried. 
The  catalpa  also  survives  well  under  adverse  conditions. 

In  planting  trees,  the  playgrounds  should  be  preserved. 
They  should  be  planted  around  the  outside  of  the  grounds, 
in  the  corners,  and  about  the  outbuildings.  Nature  plants 
her  trees  in  clumps,  and  Nature  knows  how  to  make  them 
look  well. 

A  School  Site  in  the  Timber.  —  In  many  parts  of  the 
South  and  in  other  timbered  districts,  the  question  is 
not  so  much  one  of  planting  trees  and  getting  them  to 
grow,  as  it  is  a  problem  of  clearing  a  place  for  the  school- 
house.  Too  often  the  clearing  is  just  large  enough  for 
the  house,  no  room  being  provided  for  school  garden  and 
playground;  nor  is  any  thought  given  to  the  attractive- 
ness of  the  place.    What  an  advantage  these  conditions 


School  Site  and  Grounds  11 

offer  over  those  in  the  dry  prairie  districts  where  it  is  hard 
to  get  trees  to  grow!  A  little  forethought,  leaving  a  tree 
here  and  one  there,  digging  and  transplanting  a  few 
native  shrubs  and  vines,  rounding  out  this  corner  and 
covering  that  unsightly  place,  will  produce  a  veritable 
Garden  of  Eden  in  the  midst  of  a  forest  of  trees  and  fur- 
nish a  picture  lesson  for  every  home  in  the  vicinity. 

A  SCHOOL  PLANT 

When  the  rural  school  comes  into  its  own,  when  it  fur- 
nishes the  education  which  the  country  needs,  when 
patrons  and  school  officers  realize  the  possibilities  of  the 
school,  there  will  be,  not  a  schoolhouse,  but  a  school 
plant.  This  will  consist  of  a  plot  of  ground,  a  house,  a 
barn,  a  home  for  the  teacher,  and  such  other  accessories 
as  the  occupations  of  the  community  may  demand.  The 
house  will  be  fitted  for  the  occupation  of  a  modern  school, 
a  place  where  the  various  lines  of  work  needed  under 
present  changed  conditions  can  be  performed.  Manual 
training,  domestic  science,  basket-weaving,  agriculture, 
etc.,  besides  the  usual  program  of  the  school,  will  enter 
into  the  consideration  of  the  plans  for  the  house  and  of 
the  selection  of  the  grounds.  The  teacher's  home  will  be 
a  neat  modern  cottage  fitted  for  the  use  of  the  teacher 
and  his  family.  The  barn  or  stable  will  be  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  teacher,  and  those  who  ride  or  drive  to 
school.  The  plot  of  ground  will  consist  of  ten  or  more 
acres  which  will  be  used  for  playgrounds,  school  gardens, 
experimental  agriculture,  etc.,  and  will  make  possible 
work  along  lines  which  will  be  significant.  A  gasoline 
engine,  a  pump,  a  dynamo  and  a  pressure  tank  in  the 
basement  of  the  schoolhouse  will  make  possible  sanitary 
water-closets,  and  shower  baths  and  electricity  with  all 


12  The  Rural  School 

of  its  conveniences.  With  no  extra  expense,  except  for 
piping  and  wiring,  these  conveniences  may  be  carried  to 
the  teacher's  cottage.  Somewhere  on  the  grounds,  either 
in  the  basement  of  the  schoolhouse  or  in  the  teacher's 
kitchen,  a  motor  could  be  installed  which  would  run  a 
cream  separator,  a  churn  or  a  Babcock  tester,  a  washing 
machine,  a  sewing  machine,  a  vacuum  cleaner,  or  what- 
ever other  machinery  might  be  desired. 

Under  these  conditions  instruction  could  be  given  in 
the  household  arts,  dairying,  farm  management,  etc.,  by 
the  teacher,  or  in  case  of  a  consolidated  school,  by  some 
two  or  more  of  the  teaching  force. 

In  some  instances  there  could  be  located  on  the  school 
site  a  cannery,  a  drying  kiln,  a  shop  of  some  kind,  or 
some  other  community  interest.  The  school  grounds 
should  also  be  the  place  where  the  young  people  may 
gather  for  their  games.  Here  should  be  the  meeting 
place  of  the  literary  society,  the  Sunday  school,  the 
Farmers'  Union,  the  Mothers'  Club,  etc.  It  should,  in 
fact,  be  the  social  center  of  the  whole  community. 

REFERENCES 

Barry,  Hygiene  of  the  Schoolroom  (chapter  1).  1904. 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.     $1.50. 

Brown,  Ornamentation  of  School  Grounds.  This  may 
be  obtained  from  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

Fairchild,  School  Buildings,  School  Grounds,  and  their 
Improvement.  This  may  be  obtained  from  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Topeka,  Kansas. 

Foght,  American  Rural  School  (chapter  9).  1910. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Kern,  Among  Country  Schools.  1906.  Ginn  &  Co., 
$1.50. 


Chapter  III 

THE    HOUSE 

THE    NEED    OF    BETTER    SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

When  Garfield  said,  "  A  pine  log  with  the  student  on 
one  end  and  Dr.  Hopkms  on  the  other  would  be  a  liberal 
education,"  he  uttered  it  to  emphasize  the  importance 
of  the  teacher,  but  not  to  minimize  the  need  of  a  proper 
house  in  which  the  teacher  may  do  his  work. 

Silent  Forces.  —  There  are  certain  silent  and  unseen 
forces  in  nature  which  accomplish  wonderful  results. 
A  very  little  water  in  the  crevice  of  a  rock  may,  when  it 
freezes,  loosen  a  huge  boulder  from  its  bed  and  send  it 
thundering  doAvn  into  the  valley  below.  The  silent  action 
of  the  sun's  rays  breaks  up  the  rivers  of  ice  and  lifts  into 
the  air  tons  of  moisture  that  later  come  dowTi  in  showers 
and  storms.  So  in  the  realm  of  culture  there  are  certain 
forces,  which,  though  silent,  are  nevertheless  powerful, 
exerting  influences  and  ennobling  characters.  In  one  of 
his  orations,  Cicero  says  that  he  placed  before  him  the 
portraits  of  great  men  in  order  that  by  beholding  their 
likenesses  his  life  might  be  influenced  by  their  noble 
examples  and  that  he  might  grow  more  noble  by  looking 
upon  their  faces. 

Better  Houses.— The  beautiful  has  always  been  as- 
sociated with  the  good,  and  the  ugly  with  the  bad.  The 
modern  house  should  have  a  more  pleasing  architectural 
appearance.    The  older  types  of  houses  were  made  with 

13 


14 


The  Rural  School 


two  objects  in  view,  cheapness  and  usefulness.  The 
question  of  beauty  did  not  enter  into  the  consideration 
of  their  construction.  They  served  their  day  and  pur- 
pose and  were  more  or  less  suited  to  the  times,  but  con- 
ditions have  changed  and  people  are  building  better 
houses  in  which  to  live  and  better  barns  in  which  to 
house  their  stock;    they  are  buying  better  vehicles  in 


A  SOD  SCHOOLHOUSE  OF  WESTERN  KANSAS 


which  to  ride  and  are  able  to  build  better  houses  in 
which  to  educate  their  children,  —  houses  that  are  more 
pleasing  to  the  eye  and  that  speak  of  the  beautiful  in 
life  and  character. 

If  there  were  no  other  reasons  why  there  should  be 
better  schoolhouses  than  those  given  above,  they  ought 
to  be  sufficient;  but  there  are  other  reasons  why  the 
buildings  in  almost  every  district  should  be  better  than 
they  are  at  the  present  time. 


The  House  15 


A    BOX   CAR   SCHOOLHOUSE 


Economy,  —  It  is  a  matter  of  economy  that  the  school- 
house  should  be  comfortable.  In  India  the  priest  may 
gather  his  pupils  under  the  shade  of  a  tree,  for  he  has 
not  much  to  teach  them  and  his  school  has  not  the  vim 
of  an  American  school;  but  in  this  country  of  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  such  simplicity  is  not  to  be  thought 
of.  In  this  land  of  the  strenuous  life,  the  house  which 
will  accomplish  the  most  in  a  given  time  is  the  one  to 
be  considered.  The  log  cabin  with  its  puncheon  floor 
would  do  for  the  pioneers  of  this  country,  for  it  was  the 
best  they  could  afford.  The  log  cabin,  as  we  have  said 
before,  has  served  its  day  and  age  in  the  hills  of  the  east 
and  in  the  mountain  regions  of  the  west,  as  the  sod  school- 
house  has  on  the  plains  of  the  middle  west.  The  one 
gave  place  to  the  "  little  red  schoolhouse  "  if  such  there 
has  ever  been,  as  the  other  has  given  place  to  the  white 
Box  Car   type.     This  might  be  called   the   age  of   the 


16 


The  Rural  School 


Box  Car  schoolhouse.  It  is  a  better  house  than  the  log 
or  the  sod  house,  but  perhaps  we  are  entering  the  era  of  a 
new  and  more  scientific  and  hygienic  type  of  school 
building. 

The  actual  outlay  for  one  of  these  modern  houses 
will  be  more  than  for  either  of  the  other  two,  but  in  the 
long  run  it  will  be  more  economical.  It  will  be  better 
heated,    better    lighted,    better    ventilated    and    better 


A    BETTER   HOUSE    OF   MODEKN    TYPE 
Containing  a  workroom,  fuel  room,  modern  lighting,  heating  and  ventilation 


equipped.  Both  teachers  and  pupils  can  do  more  work, 
and  work  which  will  be  more  efficient,  in  it  than  in  a 
building  of  the  old  type;  hence  it  will  yield  a  better 
income  on  the  investment. 

Hygienic  Considerations.  —  As  suggested  above,  the 
modern  house  will  be  more  hygienic.  Schoolhouses,  when 
new,  are  very  close  and  need  constant  ventilation;  when 
old,  they  are  too  open  and  are  hard  to  keep  warm.     In  a 


The  House  17 

new  house,  on  account  of  faulty  ventilation,  colds  or 
other  contagious  diseases  are  likely  to  spread  through 
the  whole  school,  while  in  an  old  house,  the  difficulty  in 
keeping  the  building  warm  results  in  more  or  less 
sickness. 

Heating  and  Ventilation.  —  The  subject  of  heating 
and  ventilation  will  be  discussed  at  greater  length  in  a 
later  chapter  on  Hygiene  and  Sanitation.  The  school- 
house  should  be  heated  by  some  system  other  than  a 
common  stove  set  in  the  middle  of  the  room.  With 
this  latter  method,  invariably  some  will  be  too  warm 
and  others  too  cold.  There  should  be  some  method  of 
ventilation  other  than  that  obtained  by  opening  the  doors 
and  windows.  Hon.  C.  P.  Gary,  State  Superintendent 
of  Wisconsin,  has  suggested  the  following  as  a  method 
of  ventilation.  The  chimney  built  from  the  ground  up 
is  made  extra  large  so  that  an  eight-inch  heavy  iron 
pipe  may  extend  within  the  chimney  from  the  point 
where  the  stove  pipe  enters  the  flue  up  to  and  a  little 
above  the  top  of  the  chimney.  This  iron  pipe  receives 
the  pipe  from  the  stove  and  all  the  smoke  and  gases  go 
up  through  this  and  not  through  the  flue  proper.  Near 
the  floor  a  register  is  put  m  the  chimney,  furnishing  an 
outlet  for  the  foul  air  of  the  room.  The  inner  pipe  heats 
the  air  in  the  flue  and  causes  a  draft  in  the  flue  proper. 
If  now  the  stove  is  set  in  one  corner  of  the  room  near  the 
chimney,  and  surrounded  with  a  good  jacket  into  which 
fresh  air  is  admitted  through  a  pipe  from  outside,  a  good 
system  of  heating  and  ventilation  will  be  provided  for 
the  room. 

It  is  quite  essential  that  the  flue  be  quite  large,  say 
sixteen  inches  square;  that  the  jacket  entirely  surround 
the  stove  (a  shield  will  not  answer  the  purpose),  and 
that  it  contain  a  door  that  may  be  closed  tightly;    that 


18  The  Rural  School 

the  cool  fresh  air  be  so  admitted  that  it  wiU  be  heated 
before  it  can  fall  to  the  floor;  that  all  doors  and  windows, 
and  ceiling  and  floor  of  the  room  be  tight  so  that  the 
warm  fresh  air  will  not  escape  and  so  that  the  cold  air 
will  not  enter  the  room  before  being  heated. 

Many  schoolhouses  could  be  heated  by  a  furnace.  A 
basement  will  be  required,  but  this  provides  a  place  for 
fuel  and  other  conveniences,  such  as  a  pump  and  a  tank 
for  supplying  water  for  toilet  rooms,  and  under  some 
conditions  a  room  for  manual  training  or  play.  Of  course 
fresh  air  and  an  outlet  for  the  impure  air  should  be 
provided  with  the  furnace,  just  as  with  the  stove  and 
jacket. 

Light.  —  In  the  modern  schoolhouse  the  light  is  not 
admitted  from  both  sides  of  the  room  as  in  the  common 
schoolhouse,  but  comes  mostly  from  one  side.  If  there 
could  be  no  break  in  the  surface  admitting  light  it  would 
be  all  the  better.  Some  sunshine  should  enter  the  room, 
but  the  north  light  is  the  best  for  general  purposes  and 
should  come  from  the  left  side.  The  walls  should  be 
calcimined  or  painted  with  a  paint  giving  a  dull  finish. 
A  glossy  or  varnished  surface  is  hard  on  the  eyes. 

THREE    TYPES    OF    HOUSES 

The  interest  in  modern  schoolhouses  has  produced 
three  types.  The  first  may  be  called  the  social  type. 
The  special  feature  of  this  house  is  a  platform  tAvo  or 
three  steps  above  the  main  floor,  with  two  small  rooms, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  platform.  When  entertaimnents 
are  given  the  platform  is  used  as  a  stage  and  the  two 
small  rooms  as  dressing  rooms.  During  the  regular  work 
of  the  school,  one  of  these  rooms  becomes  the  teacher's 
room,  the  other,  the  library  or  a  storeroom  for  maps, 


The  House 


19 


THE  NORTON  COUNTY  HOUSE 


charts,  etc.  The  second  type  is  called  the  manual  type. 
In  this  there  is  a  workroom  separated  from  the  main 
room  by  a  glass  partition.  In  this  room  the  teacher  may 
give  lessons  in  manual  training,  domestic  science,  bas- 
ketry, etc.,  and  leave  the  pupils  to  finish  their  work  at 
odd  times  as  convenience  may  dictate.  Since  the  parti- 
tion between  the  two  rooms  is  of  glass,  the  teacher  may 
be  in  either  and  still  keep  an  eye  on  every  pupil.  The 
third  or  comliined  type  unites  in  one  house  the  essential 
features  of  the  two  just  mentioned.  This  style  extends 
the  possibilities  of  the  social  features  of  the  one  and  en- 
larges the  use  of  the  workroom  of  the  other.  If  this  room 
is  well  built,  so  as  to  guard  against  frost,  and  well  lighted, 
plants  may  be  grown,  seeds  germinated,  and  other  ex- 
periments in  agriculture  conducted  here. 

The  first  of  these  types  is  well  represented  by  a  school- 


20 


The  Rural  School 


HAYS   HOUSE 


house  that  was  built  a  few  years  ago  in  Norton  County, 
Kansas.  The  social  feature  of  the  Emporia  plan  given 
on  page  23  was  borrowed  from  this  house.  This  plan  of 
house  emphasizes  the  idea  of  the  school  as  a  social  center 
of  the  community. 

The  second  type  is  illustrated  by  a  schoolhouse  built 
on  the  campus  of  Cornell  University  intended  as  a  model 
for  rural  school  buildings  in  New  York  State.  Another 
of  the  same  type  is  on  the  campus  of  the  Branch  Normal 
School  at  Hays,  Kansas.  The  distinctive  feature  of  this 
type  is  the  room  for  manual  work.  The  workroom  is 
separated  from  the  main  room  by  a  glass  partition,  so  that 
pupils  working  in  this  room  are  in  full  view  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  fitted  up  with  benches  and  tables  for  woodwork, 
sewing,  basketry,  etc.     See  floor  plan  on  opposite  page. 

The  third  type  combining  the  features  of  the  Norton 
County  house  and  the; Cornell  structure  is  represented 
by  a  floor  plan  worked  out  by  pupils  and  teachers  at 
the  Kansas  State  Normal  School  at  Emporia. 


The  House 


21 


PLAN    OF    HAYS    HOUSE 


Emporia  Plan.  —  This  plan  lends  itself  especially 
to  the  work  of  a  one-teacher  school,  where  more  or  less 
handwork  is  to  be  undertaken.  Attention  is  called  to 
the  two  cloakrooms  so  arranged  that  pupils  must  come 
into  the  schoolroom  before  entering  them.  This  gives 
the  teacher  better  control  of  the  rooms,  and  will  prevent 
inappropriate  mingling  of  l^oys  and  girls,  and  will  bring 
them  more  completely  under  the  watch  and  care  of  the 
teacher.  The  entry  is  purposely  small,  serving  princi- 
pally as  a  storm  door  and  as  a  place  for  overshoes  and 
rubbers.  The  inner  door  should  swing  both  ways.  The 
platform  serves  the  purpose  of  a  stage;    and  by  having 


22 


The  Rural  School 


EMPORIA    HOUSE 


doors  leading  from  the  boys'  cloakroom  and  the  library 
and  a  curtain  stretched  in  front,  it  will  fulfil  its  purpose 
very  well.  The  library  should  be  furnished  with  some 
shelves  for  books  and  serve  as  a  place  for  maps,  charts, 
globe,  etc.,  and  as  a  teachers'  room.  The  workroom  is 
separated  from  the  main  room  by  folding  doors,  which 
have  the  upper  panels  of  glass.  A  pupil  may  thus  work 
at  his  task  and  still  be  under  the  eyes  of  the  teacher. 
Teachers  will  appreciate  the  fuel  room  on  the  same  floor 
with  the  heater  and  near  to  it,  so  that  all  dirt  and  ashes 
may  be  swept  back  into  this  room. 

While  this  plan  is  compact  and  lends  itself  admirably 
to  the  oversight  of  one  teacher,  it  also  presents  attrac- 
tions as  a  social  center.  With  the  conveniences  furnished 
by  this  house,  dramatization,  which  is  occupying  such 
a  prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  of  the  city  schools, 
can  be  introduced  into  the  country  school.  Think  of  it 
as  a  place  for  a  home  talent  play  or  for  a  Sunday  school 
or  a  meeting  place  for  the  Grange  or  Farmers'  Union. 


The  House 


23 


PLAN   OF   EMPORIA    HOUSE 


An  anteroom  could  be  provided  for  by  enlarging  the 
entry  and  cutting  a  door  from  it  into  the  girls'  cloakroom. 
The  schoolhouse  described  above  should  be  built  in 
almost  any  part  of  the  United  States  for  not  over  $1800, 
but,  if  a  district  so  desired  and  could  afford  to  expend 
$2500  or  $3000,  a  basement  could  be  put  under  the  whole, 
in  which  could  be  placed  a  furnace,  fuel  room,  pump, 
pressure  tank,  gasoline  engine,  dynamo,  and  a  play  room 
for  rainy  days.  Then,  if  the  cloakrooms  were  enlarged  a 
little,  modern  sanitary  toilet  rooms  could  be  introduced, 
giving  the  country  school  the  advantages  of  a  modern 
house  the  same  as  the  city  school.  If  farmers  could 
realize  what  these  improvements  would  mean  to  their 
girls  and  boys  in  pureness  of  thought  and  cleanliness 
of  character,  many  a  rural  schoolhouse  would  have  them. 


24 


The  Rural  School 


COLO  AIR  DUCT- 
WATEP  TANK 
^OO.CAL 


DRYING  ROOM 


GYMNASIUM     l2>tXZ3 


BASEMENT   PLAN      east  side 
THE    KIRKSVILLE    HOUSE 


Earksville  Plan.  —  The  most  complete  and  entirely- 
modern  schoolhouse  m  America,  perhaps  in  the  world, 
is  the  one  on  the  campus  of  the  First  District  Normal 
School  at  Kirksville,  Missouri.  President  Kirk  of  this 
school  was  early  interested  in  better  rural  schoolhouses, 
and  built  a  small  model  on  which  he  received  a  premium 
at  the  World's  Fair  at  St.  Louis.  A  building  after  this 
pattern  was  erected  on  the  Normal  campus.  There  are 
toilet  rooms  in  this  house  fitted  with  lavatory,  shower 
bath,  and  water-closet.  The  house  is  piped  for  water 
and  the  pressure  is  furnished  by  means  of  a  pump  and 
pressure  tank  in  the  basement.  It  is  heated  with  a  fur- 
nace situated  in  the  basement,  through  the  jacket  of 


The  House 


25 


WEST     SIDt 


SMOKC  FLUC 
,VE.NTILAT1N0  FLUE 


rmt  PLACE 


SCHOOL  ROOM 
£2    X27H 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN 
THE    KIRKSVILLE   HOUSE 


which  air  is  forced  by  means  of  a  fan.  A  double  flue 
extending  from  the  basement  floor  receives  the  smoke 
from  the  furnace  on  one  side  and  the  impure  air  from  the 
schoohoom  on  the  other.  In  order  to  insure  a  sufficient 
draft  to  ventilate  the  room,  a  fireplace  has  been  built  in 
the  ventilating  shaft.  The  burning  of  a  few  papers  in 
this  will  give  the  air  an  upward  movement,  and  the  heat 
from  the  other  shaft  will  continue  the  flow. 

Tliis  house  has  electric  lights,  hot  and  cold  water,  gas, 
fan  ventilation,  a  playroom  in  the  basement,  domestic 
science  and  manual  training  equipment,  a  drinking 
fountain,  a  stereopticon,  and  a  bed  for  use  in  case  a  child 
is  sick.  All  this  and  more  was  secured  at  a  cost  of  less 
than  $3000.    Study  the  plans  shown. 


26 


The  Rural  School 


i             SRViLlOHT 

TABLE. 

SINK 

\\l// 

~l" 

^ 

©e 
©e 

i 

CASOLINC 
.^'^CAS  STOVL 


SANITARY 
DRINKING*-' 
FOUNTAIN 


o. 


^WASH   BOWL 


NCHI 


-'I 


=1= 


_48  X20" 
SKY  LIGHT 


ATTIC  PLAN  "ST   sioe 

THE    KIRKSVILLE    HOUSE 


Notice  that  all  of  these  houses  have  porches,  that  the 
light  comes  principally  from  one  side,  and  that  there  is 
some  attempt  at  architectural  beauty.  Without  excep- 
tion, in  the  planning  of  these  modern  houses  the  Box 
Car  type  has  been  discarded. 

EQUIPMENT 

There  are  certain  accessories  to  a  building  which  are 
needed  to  make  it  complete.  First,  there  should  be  two 
cloakrooms,  one  for  the  boys  and  one  for  the  girls,  and, 
where  possible,  each  should  open  into  a  toilet  room 
equipped  with  lavatories  and  water-closet.  There  will 
probably  be  less  disturbance  in  these  cloakrooms  if  they 
open  into  the  main  room  rather  than  into  a  general  hall. 


The  House  27 

The  room  should  be  seated  with  single  seats,  the  small 
ones  in  a  row  on  the  side  near  the  light,  then  the  next 
larger,  grading  up  to  the  largest  in  a  row  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  room.  This  plan  of  seating  will  not  bring 
together  a  low  desk  and  a  high  seat,  a  combination  which 
is  very  uncomfortable  and  very  unhygienic.  There  should 
be  a  bookcase  that  can  be  locked,  a  closet  for  apparatus 
such  as  maps,  charts,  globe,  etc.,  and  a  cupboard  for 
material  for  the  seat  work.  A  good  clock  within  the 
building  and  a  clear  sounding  bell  on  the  outside  in  a 
neat  tower  are  more  than  conveniences. 

With  the  advantages  offered  by  one  of  these  houses, 
Mark  Hopkins  would  have  had  a  better  opportunity  to 
teach  Garfield  than  if  they  were  compelled  to  sit  on 
opposite  ends  of  a  pine  log. 

REFERENCES 

Barry,  Hygiene  of  Schoolroom  (chapter  2).  Silver,  Bur- 
dett  &  Co.      $1.50. 

Fairchild,  School  Buildings,  School  Grounds,  and  Their 
Improvement.  May  be  obtained  from  the  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  Topeka,  Kansas. 

Foght,  American  Rural  School  {chapters  7  and  8).  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

The  One-Room  Country  Schools  in  Illinois.  May  be 
obtained  from  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, Springfield,  111. 

McKeever,  Farm  Boys  and  Girls  (chapter  8).  1912. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

National  Education  Association,  Proceedings,  1907. 
(415-420). 

Wilson,  Church  in  the  Open  Country  (Better  Houses,  p. 
107).  1911.  Missionary  Education  Movement  of  U.  S., 
New  York,  50c. 


Chapter  IV 

SCHOOL    HYGIENE    AND    SANITATION 
PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST   GERMS 

Germ  Theory.  —  The  germ  theory  of  disease  has  passed 
the  theory  stage  and  has  entered  the  realm  of  fact.  It 
is  now  known  that  many,  and  ahnost  certain  that  most, 
diseases  are  caused  by  microorganisms  or  germs.  These 
disease  germs  enter  the  body,  take  up  their  abode  there, 
and  cause  the  host  to  become  sick. 

Consumption.  —  It  is  well  known  that  consumption 
is  caused  by  a  microscopic  organism  called  tubercle  bacillus, 
which  is  breathed  into  the  lungs.  If  the  condition  of  the 
lung  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  these  germs,  they  take 
up  their  abode  there  and  begin  to  multiply.  The  process 
of  destroying  the  lung  begins,  and  consumption  develops. 

This  disease  is  not  inherited,  as  was  thought  some 
years  ago,  though  some  tendencies  are,  but  comes  from 
bacilli  that  are  breathed  into  the  lungs.  All  sputum  of 
a  consumptive  contains  these  germs  and  they  are  thrown 
off  with  this  discharge,  myriads  in  number  with  each 
expectoration.  They  are  probably  not  in  the  exhaled 
breath.  If  this  sputum  is  allowed  to  dry  and  liecome  dust, 
the  germs  then  float  in  the  air  or  cling  to  particles  of  dust 
ready  to  be  inhaled  by  some  other  person.  Like  corn  and 
wheat,  these  germs  are  not  killed  at  once  by  becoming 
dry.    When  they  fall  on  fertile  soil  they  multiply. 

28 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation  29 

Typhoid  Fever.  —  The  germs  of  typhoid  fever  are  of 
a  different  kind.  They  attack  the  bowels  of  the  human 
being  and  give  off  a  poison  that  is  carried  all  over  the 
body  in  the  blood.  They  pass  off  with  the  excreta  and 
are  very  tenacious  of  life.  They  are  disseminated 
through  the  food  and  drink.  Flies  carry  them  on  their 
feet  from  barnyards  and  outhouses  and  leave  them  on 
the  food  of  the  table.  Flyspecks  likewise  contain  the 
typhoid  germs.  The  nurse,  if  she  be  cook  also,  may 
contaminate  the  food  of  the  household  and  thus  spread 
the  disease  through  the  whole  family.  Ordinary  clean- 
liness is  not  a  safeguard  in  case  of  this  disease. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye.  —  Sore  eyes  may  be  communicated 
by  means  of  the  common  towel.  Also,  children  afflicted 
with  sore  eyes  are  inclined  to  rub  their  eyes  with  their 
hands.  In  this  way  germs  may  be  left  upon  desks,  books, 
slates,  doorknobs,  stair  banisters,  etc.  The  teacher 
must  exercise  constant  care  and  watchfulness  and  in- 
struct the  parents  through  the  children  in  sanitary  pre- 
cautions. 

Preventing  the  Spread  of  Contagious  Diseases.  —  It  is 
safe  to  exclude  from  school  all  children  afflicted  with  any 
contagious  disease.  This  suspension  should  extend  to 
all  members  of  the  family.  While  it  may  seem  a  hard- 
ship to  keep  well  children  out  of  school,  nevertheless,  the 
whole  community  must  be  protected  even  at  the  expense 
of  one  family.  The  germs  of  these  diseases  may  be  carried 
in  some  way  by  well  persons.  The  health  officer  should 
be  notified,  and  an  order  from  him  or  some  competent 
physician  should  be  received  before  admitting  them 
again  to  school. 

Precaution  Against  Disease.  —  Our  knowledge  of  germs 
admonishes  us  to  scrupulous  cleanliness.  No  teacher 
afflicted  with  tuberculosis  should  be  shut  up  with  pupils 


30  The  Rural  School 

in  a  schoolroom.  In  homes  of  persons  afflicted  with 
consumption  all  sputum  should  be  burned.  No  persons 
should  spit  upon  the  floor  of  public  buildings  or  upon  the 
sidewalks.  There  are  other  germs  that  are  contained  in 
the  sputum  besides  those  causing  consumption.  Many 
diseases  are  disseminated  by  the  common  drinking  cup, 
by  sputum  on  the  sidewalks  and  floors,  by  the  exchange 
of  pencils  that  have  been  wet  in  the  mouth,  by  second- 
hand books,  by  doorknobs,  etc. 

Removal  of  Dust.  —  Remember  that  disease  germs 
harbor  in  or  are  a  part  of  the  dust  of  all  places  inhabi- 
ted by  human  beings.  The  watchword  of  the  housewife 
and  all  school  officials  should  be,  "  Fight  the  dust."  It 
is  not  enough  to  raise  a  dust  with  a  broom  and  feather 
duster,  but  it  should  be  removed  from  the  room.  The 
feather  duster  has  been  tabooed;  it  simply  scatters  dust 
to  fall  later  in  some  other  place.  The  housewife's  "  dust- 
ing rag,"  moistened  with'coal  oil,  is  better  than  any 
duster.  After  sweeping,  all  seats,  tables,  desks,  and 
every  place  where  dust  can  settle  should  be  gone  over 
with  the  dust  rag  and  the  dust  gathered  into  it.  The 
rag  should  be  burned,  or  thoroughly  cleansed  with  boil- 
ing water. 

Precautions  in  regard  to  Slates  and  Pencils.  —  The  use 
of  slates  has  almost  become  a  thing  of  the  past.  If  they 
are  used,  a  bottle  of  water  should  be  kept  near  at  hand, 
and  pupils  should  be  required  to  use  it  for  moistening 
sponge  or  rag.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  wet  the 
slate  or  rag  with  saliva,  for  then  both  become  harbors 
for  numerous  disease  germs.  The  New  York  Board  of 
Education  in  one  of  its  rules  requires  that  the  pen  and 
pencil  furnished  to  each  pupil  shall  be  used  by  that  child 
alone,  until  such  time  as  it  seems  best  to  give  it  to  another, 
when  it  must  be  thoroughly  fumigated  and  cleansed.    A 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation  31 


y^y^^y^-^y^yyyy-yr- 


^y^  ^yy^y^y:^ 


SANITARY   DRINKING   FOUNTAIN 
(McCalve) 

very  unsanitary  habit  is  that  of  putting  the  pencil  into 
the  mouth.  If  the  pencils  are  dipped  into  quinine  or  aloe 
water,  children  can  be  broken  of  this  habit. 

Drinking  Water.  —  Typhoid  germs  may  pass  down  with 
the  water  into  the  ground  and  get  into  a  well  or  cistern. 
In  determining  the  position  of  the  well,  great  care  should 
be  taken  that  it  shall  not  receive  the  drainage  of  outhouses 


32  The  Rural  School 

or  stables.  The  well  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  at 
the  beginning  of  each  school  year.  At  least,  it  should  be 
pumped  out  two  or  three  times  before  any  of  the  water  is 
used  after  the  summer  vacation.  The  fact  that  water  is 
clear  and  sparkling  does  not  indicate  that  it  is  free  from 
disease  germs,  for  they  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 

If  the  water  must  be  brought  from  a  farm  house,  there 
should  be  a  covered  receptacle  in  which  to  keep  it.  It 
should  not  be  left  to  stand  in  an  open  bucket  in  the  room. 
Since  there  are  many  disease  germs  in  the  air,  mingling 
with  the  dust  of  the  room,  and  since  they  are  carried  on 
the  children's  clothing,  if  the  water  is  left  uncovered,  they 
will  be  taken  into  it.  The  tubercle  bacillus  and  many  other 
disease  germs  are  often  found  in  the  mouth  and  may  be 
left  on  the  drinking  cup.  In  order  that  these  disease 
germs  may  not  be  disseminated  in  this  way,  each  pupil 
should  be  required  to  own  and  use  his  own  drinking  cup. 

Flies.  —  The  common  house  fly  breeds  in  barnyard 
manure  and  other  excreta.  If  manure  were  kept  in  closed 
receptacles  or  spread  upon  the  fields,  flies  would  have 
no  breeding  places  and  would  in  time  become  extinct. 
Through  draining  the  swamps  and  pools  of  stagnant 
water  and  thus  getting  rid  of  the  mosquito,  the  carrier 
of  malarial  germs,  this  disease  has  almost  become  a  thing 
of  the  past.  In  a  similar  manner,  by  destroying  the 
breeding  places  of  flies,  we  shall  get  rid  of  them  also 
and  free  ourselves  of  much  annoyance  and  sickness. 

Sanitary  Closets.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be 
placed  upon  the  installation  of  sanitary  closets.  In  those 
parts  of  the  country  where  typhoid  fever  is  prevalent, 
much  of  the  well  water  is  contaminated  by  seepage  from 
some  ill-kept  water-closet.  Even  springs  have  been  known 
to  be  tainted  by  an  outhouse  situated  above  on  the  side 
of  the  hill.    In  the  Southern  states  where  the  hookworm 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation 


33 


thrives  and  does  its 
mischievous  work, 
the  ground  becomes 
saturated  Avith  filth 
and  h  o  o  k  w  o  r  m  s. 
These  worms  enter 
the  blood  of  the  in- 
dividual through  the 
soles  oi"  the  feet,  and 
lodge  in  the  intes- 
tines, where  they  do 
their  harm.  Sickness  ^  °^^^«^^^  ™  ^^^  community 
and  loss  of  life  caused  by  lack  of  reasonable  sanitation  are 
sufficient  reasons  for  the  installation  of  sanitary  closets. 


CORRECTING  PHYSICAL  DEFECTS 


Adenoids   and  En- 
larged  Tonsils.  — 

Alan}'  children  are 
afflicted  with  en- 
larged tonsils  and 
adenoids,  a  growth 
in  the  upper  part 
of  the  nasal  pas- 
sages. These  enlarge- 
ments obstruct  the 
free  passage  of  the  air 
through  the  nose  and 
in  other  ways  affect 
the  health  of  the 
individual.  Persons  afflicted  in  this  way  usually  breathe 
through  the  mouth.  If  allowed  to  remain,  these  little 
enlargements    become    serious    and  greatly    hinder   the 


THE   KIND    OF    SANITARY   CLOSET   ANY 
SCHOOL   CAN   HAVE 


34  The  Rural  School 

child  in  his  development.  Children  who  are  troubled 
with  adenoids  or  enlarged  tonsils  should  be  taken  to 
a  competent  physician,  and  the  abnormal  growth  should 
be  removed.  By  watching  for  the  mouth-breathers  and 
that  peculiar  hollow  somid  which  accompanies  adenoids, 
the  teacher  can  detect  the  pupils  who  need  attention. 

Defective  Eyes.  —  There  are  few  schools  m  which  there 
are  not  pupils  with  defective  eyesight.  Many  cannot  see 
as  well  as  others,  but  they  do  not  know  it.  They  have 
never  noticed  that  they  have  to  hold  their  book  nearer 
to  their  eyes  than  other  pupils  do.  This  the  teacher 
should  notice  and  see  that  those  with  defective  eyesight 
have  seats  where  they  can  easily  see  all  the  work  on  the 
board.  If  the  case  requires,  the  parents  should  be  noti- 
fied and  advised  to  consult  an  oculist.  Some  persons  are 
afflicted  with  headaches  which  are  caused  by  their  eyes. 
The  lenses  of  the  eye  are  not  perfect,  and  in  adjusting 
the  focus  for  reading  and  study  the  muscles  are  strained 
and  become  tired  thus  causing  severe  headaches.  This 
can  often  be  entirely  relieved  by  using  glasses  that  are 
rightly  adjusted.  In  aggravated  cases  the  services  of  a 
specialist  should  be  secured. 

Testing  Eyesight  and  Hearing.  —  It  is  a  good  plan  for 
teachers  to  test  the  eyesight  and  hearing  of  all  pupils 
at  the  beginning  of  the  term.  The  test  cards  can  be 
obtained  from  almost  any  optician  or  oculist.  A  watch 
may  be  used  to  test  the  hearing.  Simply  testing  to  see 
who  can  hear  the  farthest  will  locate  the  ones  that  need 
the  teacher's  attention. 

LIGHTING  AND   SEATING 

Light.  —  The  light  of  a  schoolroom  should  come  from 
one  side  of  the  room,  at  most  from  two  sides,  and  then 
from  the  left  side  and  back  of  the  room.    If  the  light  comes 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation  35 

from  two  opposite  sides  it  causes  cross  shadows,  and  these 
are  hard  on  the  eyes.  If  the  Hght  comes  from  the  right 
side,  it  causes  the  shadow  of  the  right  hand  to  fall  in  the 
light  of  the  writer. 

The  teacher  in  the  rural  school  cannot  rebuild  the  house, 
but  she  can  manipulate  the  shades  so  that  the  light  will  be 
the  best  possible  under  the  conditions.  It  is  better  that 
the  light  should  come  in  near  the  ceiling,  so  that  it  may 
be  scattered  and  reflected  by  it  all  over  the  room.  It 
would  be  ideal  to  have  light  come  in  from  above  as  out 
of  doors.  This  cannot  always  be  done,  but  shades  can  be 
so  arranged  as  to  admit  the  light  at  the  top  of  the  window. 
This  can  be  accomplished  either  by  placing  tAvo  shades 
near  the  middle  of  the  window,  one  rolling  up  and  the 
other  down,  or  a  shade  adj  uster  may  be  had  which  allows 
the  shade  and  fixture  to  be  moved  up  and  down  at  will, 
thus  locating  the  curtain  at  any  point  desired.  Shades 
are  not  merely  for  ornament,  but  should  serve  their 
purpose  of  regulating  the  light.  School  boards  do  not 
always  think  of  them  as  necessities,  but  teachers  should 
be  able  to  show  their  importance  and  insist  that  they  be 
furnished. 

The  blackboards  should  be  of  a  black  or  dark  green 
color,  and  the  writing  should  be  large  and  distinct,  so 
that  it  will  not  cause  pupils  to  strain  their  eyes  to  read  it. 

Seating.  —  In  seating  pupils  care  should  be  exercised 
to  find  seats  suited  to  the  several  sizes  in  the  school. 
There  are  two  faults  quite  prevalent;  the  first,  where  the 
seat  is  too  high  for  the  child,  and  the  second,  where  seat 
and  desk  are  too  far  apart.  The  little  fellows  in  too  many 
schools  must  sit  with  their  feet  resting  on  nothing.  This 
is  tiresome  and  injurious  to  the  flexible  bones  of  the 
growing  child.  The  feet  should  rest  easily  on  the  floor. 
When  a  pupil  can  sit  back  in  his  seat  with  a  right  angle 


36 


The  Rural  School 


AN    ADJUSTABLE    DESK 
And  one  that  may  be  inoveil  to  any  part  of  the  room 


formed  at  his  knee  and  his  feet  flat  on  the  floor,  his  seat 
is  of  the  riglit  height. 

The  desk  top  should  be  near  enough  the  pupil  so  that 
he  will  not  have  to  lean  far  forward  in  order  to  write. 
It  is  preferable  to  have  seat  and  desk  too.  near  together 
rather  than  to  have  them  too  far  apart.  If  too  near  to- 
gether, there  will  be  trouble  in  getting  in  and  out ;  but  if 
too  far  apart,  the  pupils  will  have  to  assume  an  improper 
position  in  writing  and  study.     With  a  good  adjustable 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation  37 

desk  all  these  ills  can  be  remedied  and  each  pupil  be 
given  a  seat  and  desk  suited  to  his  size.  Until  then 
teachers  should  make  the  best  use  possible  of  the  material 
at  hand. 

VENTILATION 

Need  of  a  Revival  for  Pure  Air.  —  It  is  a  sad  fact,  never- 
theless true,  that  our  teachers  know  a  great  deal  more 
about  ventilation  than  they  put  into  practice.  When  a 
teacher  talks  about  modern  methods  of  heating  and 
ventilation,  while  her  room  is  reeking  with  foul  air  and 
not  a  window  is  open,  you  wonder  what  good  her  in- 
formation is  doing  her  or  her  pupils.  What  we  need  is  a 
revival  for  pure  air.  We  need  to  realize  that  fresh  air  is 
nature's  free  food  and  that  we  ought  to  have  plenty  of  it. 

Here  are  some  facts  upon  which  the  theory  and  need  of 
ventilation  are  based: 

1.  Warm  air  rises  and  cold  air  settles. 

2.  In  breathing  we  consume  oxygen  and  exhale  added 
amounts  of  carbon  dioxide. 

3.  Oxygen  is  necessary  for  life,  but  exhaled  air  con- 
tains less  and  less  of  oxygen  and  more  and  more  of 
matter  poisonous  to  the  human  system. 

4.  In  order  to  keep  air  pure  as  it  should  be  for  breath- 
ing it  is  necessary  to  introduce  about  thirty  cubic  feet  of 
fresh  air  each  minute  for  each  individual  and  to  extract 
an  equal  amount. 

5.  Very  moist  air  is  oppressive  and  excessively  dry  air 
is  irritating  to  the  throat  and  lungs. 

6.  Ordinarily,  when  the  temperature  is  raised  nineteen 
degrees,  the  moisture  is  decreased  one-half 

7.  Many  of  the  impurities  of  air  are  heavier  than  air 
and  gradually  settle  to  the  floor. 

Our  knowledge  of  disease  germs  and  the  conclusions 


38  The  Rural  School 

from  the  above  principles  should  convince  us  of  the 
necessity  of  schoolroom  ventilation. 

Effects  of  Impure  Air.  —  It  has  been  estimated  by  the 
State  Board  of  Health  of  New  York  that  forty  per  cent 
of  all  deaths  are  caused  directly  or  indirectly  by  impure 
air.  A  great  waste  is  caused  in  our  rural  schools  from  the 
effects  of  impure  air.  Pupils  become  dull  and  stupid,  or 
restless  and  irritable,  all  because  the  air  of  the  room  is  foul. 
When  pupils  are  sleepy  or  things  begin  to  drag,  or  some 
complain  of  headaches,  it  is  time  to  think  about  ventila- 
tion. Throw  open  the  windows  and  have  the  pupils  march 
until  the  impure  air  has  been  replaced  by  fresh  air. 

Warm  air  is  not  necessarily  impure,  nor  on  the  other 
hand  is  cold  air  always  pure.  If  there  has  been  no  inter- 
change during  the  interval,  the  air  left  overnight  in  a 
schoolroom  will  be  just  as  impure  in  the  morning,  though 
cold,  as  it  was  the  night  before.  The  janitor  should  be 
instructed  to  open  the  doors  and  windows  while  sweeping, 
that  there  may  be  a  complete  change  of  air. 

Schoolroom  Experiences.  —  Methinks  I  hear  the  voice 
of  some  lone  teacher  in  a  forlorn  old  schoolhouse  say,  "  1 
cannot  warm  my  schoolhouse  with  all  doors  and  windows 
closed  as  tight  as  I  can  get  them.  There  are  cracks  in  the 
door  and  it  does  not  touch  the  threshold  by  an  inch. 
The  windows  also  do  not  fit,  and  the  wind  and  cold  pour 
in.  How  am  I  to  ventilate?  "  In  reply:  Your  problem 
is  one  of  heating  and  not  of  ventilation.  The  "  friendly 
cracks  "  will  furnish  all  of  the  fresh  air  you  need,  especially 
on  a  windy  day;  on  a  still  day  you  will  need  to  follow 
directions  given  to  others. 

Another  says,  "  My  schoolroom  is  tight  enough,  but 
there  is  no  way  provided  to  ventilate  it."  This  is  the 
condition  of  most  schoolhouses,  but  it  is  not  a  valid  reason 
for  teachers  giving  no  attention  to  the  subject. 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation  39 

If  the  door  is  located  so  that  it  does  not  cause  a  draft 
on  any  one,  it  can  be  left  a  Httle  ajar.  Through  this 
crack  a  current  of  air  will  enter  at  the  lower  part  and  an- 
other will  go  out  from  the  upper  part.  A  small  wooden 
wedge  will  hold  the  door  in  place. 

Ventilation  by  Use  of  Windows.  —  The  most  common 
method  of  ventilating  under  above  conditions  is  by  means 
of  an  open  window  or  two.  The  problem  is  to  provide 
an  inlet  and  an  outlet  of  air,  and  cause  no  draft  on  "pupils 
or  teacher.  Sometimes  this  can  be  done  by  opening  a 
window  from  the  top  on  the  leeward  side,  and  one  or 
more  at  the  bottom  on  the  other  side.  Another  way  is  by 
use  of  boards.  In  the  first  place,  when  only  a  little  air 
is  needed,  fit  a  board  about  six  inches  wide  under  the 
lower  sash.  This  allows  a  flow  of  air  between  the  upper 
and  lower  sashes.  Where  more  air  is  wanted,  fit  a  board 
about  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide  on  the  inside  of  the  casing, 
then  raise  the  lower  sash  about  eight  or  ten  inches.  This 
will  allow  a  flow  of  air  into  the  room  under  the  window 
but  the  board  will  give  it  an  upward  turn.  By  the  use 
of  boards  in  this  way  you  can  prevent  a  draft  on  the 
pupils.  Whatever  method  is  used,  cold  air  must  not  be 
allowed  to  strike  the  pupils  or  fall  upon  their  heads. 

Any  of  these  ways  are  imperfect,  for  in  cold  weather 
fresh  air  should  be  warmed  before  it  enters  the  school- 
room. Then  again,  it  is  impossible  by  these  methods  to 
get  fresh  air  into  all  parts  of  the  room. 

School  boards  generally  place  the  stove  in  the  middle 
of  the  room,  so  that  it  will  radiate  heat  into  all  parts  of 
the  house.  As  many  a  boy  or  girl  knows,  this  furnishes 
a  good  hiding  place  from  the  eyes  of  the  teacher  and  makes 
seats  back  of  the  stove  at  a  premium;  also,  those  near 
the  stove  roast,  while  those  sitting  in  the  far  corners  of  the 
room  freeze. 


40 


The  Rural  School 


FOUl. 

AIR 

■ > 1 RACTOf 


ONE   TYPE    OF    SANITAHY    FURNACE 
(The  Smith  System) 


A  Modern  System  of  Ventilation.  —  There  are  now 
on  the  market  two  rational  methods  of  heating  and  ven- 
tilating a  one-room  building  by  the  use  of  a  stove. 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation  41 


ANOTHER    .MODERN    SYSTEM 
(Waterman-Waterbury) 


Both  these  systems  use  a  stove  enclosed  in  a  jacket. 
Fresh  air  is  admitted  into  this  jacket  from  outside,  is 
heated,  rises  and  spreads  over  the  ceiling.  A  large  foul 
air  pipe  placed  near  the  stove  comes  to  within  three  or 


42 


The  Rural  School 


A   TYPICAL   fcJTOVE-HEATED,    UNVENTILATED    SCHOOLROOM 
Note  the  waste  of  floor  space 


four  inches  of  the  floor,  extends  upward  and  passes  out 
through  the  ceiling  and  roof.  The  stove  pipe  passes 
within  this  foul  air  duct  up  to  a  point  on  a  level  with  the 
opening  in  the  flue,  thus  heating  the  air  in  the  foul  air 
pipe.  In  the  other  case  the  chimney,  beginning  at  the 
floor,  is  used  as  the  conduit  for  the  foul  air. 

The  air  in  the  flue  is  heated  by  the  smoke  and  gases 


School  Hygiene  and  Sanitation 


43 


A  SCHOOLROOM  HEATED  AND  VENTILATED  BY  ONE  OF  THE  MODERN 

SYSTEMS 
Note  the  conservation  of  floor  space 


from  the  stove,  and  causes  a  suction  of  air  through  the 
registers.  This  takes  air  from  the  floor,  and  the  heated 
air  next  to  the  ceiHng  gradually  cools  and  settles. 

In  this  way  the  whole  room  is  evenly  heated,  while 
fresh  air  is  coming  in  all  the  time  and  foul  air  is  going  out. 
Those  sitting  near  the  stove  are  no  warmer  than  those  in 
the  far  corner.  This  stove  may  be  set  in  the  corner  of  the 
room  out  of  the  way. 

There  is  a  water  pan  within  the  jacket.  The  evapora- 
tion of  this  water  moistens  the  air  of  the  room.  In  most 
schoolrooms  the  atmosphere  is  too  dry.  An  open  vessel 
of  water  placed  on  the  stove  will  replenish  the  moisture 
of  the  room. 

Under  all  circumstances  it  takes  more  fuel  to  heat  a 
room  when  there  is  cold  air  coming  into  it  than  when 
everything  is  closed  up  tight.  Yet  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  heat  a  room  uniformly  without  a  circulation  of  air,  and 


44  The  Rural  School 

entirely  impossible  to  ventilate  without  it.  While  it  may 
cost  a  trifle  more  for  fuel  (the  companies  claim  not,  saying 
that  because  of  the  circulation  of  air,  which  gives  a 
uniform  heat  in  the  room,  it  does  not  take  as  much  coal 
as  where  some  of  the  house  must  be  overheated  to  warm 
the  corners  of  the  room),  yet  every  schoolhouse  should  be 
heated  by  some  such  system.  The  whole  cost  of  install- 
ing one  of  these  plants  is  about  one  hundred  twenty 
dollars. 

REFERENCES 

Allen,  Civics  and  Health  (especially  Part  III).  1909. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  $1.50. 

Barry,  Hygiene  of  Schoolroom.  1904.  Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co.,  $1.50. 

Conn,  Elementary  Physiology  and  Hygiene  (chapters  5, 
14,  15  and  16).     1913.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  60c. 

Foght,  American  Rural  School  (pp.  125-128  and  Ap- 
pendix B).     1910.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Newsholme,  School  Hygiene.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  75c. 

Ogden,  Rural  Hygiene.  1911.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
$1.50. 

Prudden,  Story  of  Bacteria  and  their  Relation  to  Health 
and  Disease.  Second  ed.,  rev.  1910.  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  75c. 

Ritchie,  Primer  of  Hygiene.  1910.  World  Book  Co., 
Yonkers-on-Hudson,  N.  Y.,  40c.  A  very  practical  little 
book. 

Ritchie,  Primer  of  Sanitation.  1910.  World  Book  Co., 
50c.     Equally  practical. 

Shaw,  School  Hygiene.  1901.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
$1.00. 


Chapter  V 

THE    TEACHER  — HIS    QUALIFICATIONS 

PHYSICAL  EQXJIPMENT 

No  Physical  Disabihty.  —  The  person  that  stands  from 
day  to  tlay  jjefore  the  boys  and  girls  of  a  school  should  be 
physically  whole.  However  much  we  sympathize  with 
them  and  desire  to  assist  them,  persons  who  are  maimed 
or  deformed  are  not  the  persons  for  school  teachers. 
Children  are  so  inclined  to  imitate  that  they  often  assume 
the  walk,  posture  or  special  peculiarity  of  the  person  who 
stands  before  them  as  teacher.  Then  too,  the  impressions 
of  childhood  are  so  lasting  that  we  should  try  to  place 
before  them  perfect  models.  The  school  boards  that  de- 
sire to  see  the  teacher  before  making  a  contract  are  not 
to  be  blamed.  Other  things  being  equal,  those  boards 
that  choose  the  best  looking  teacher,  should  not  be  criti- 
cised too  severely.  "  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  " 
is  not  more  to  be  desired  in  any  other  walk  of  life  than 
in  that  of  a  teacher. 

Importance  of  Good  Health.  —  The  young  man  or 
woman  who  starts  out  in  life  to  be  a  teacher  needs  a  good 
constitution.  While  there  is  an  impression  among  a  good 
many  rural  people  that  school  teaching  is  not  hard  work, 
yet  many  break  down  and  have  to  leave  on  account 
of  their  ill  health.  To  walk  a  mile  and  one-half,  or  two 
miles;  to  eat  a  cold  dinner;  to  act  as  teacher  and  janitor 

45 


46  The  Rural  School 

and  build  fires  on  winter  mornings  when  the  wind  blows 
and  the  snow  flies;  to  remain  housed  up  in  a  close  room 
five  days  in  the  week  with  thirty  or  more  pupils  breathing 
impure  air  —  to  withstand  these  drains  upon  the  vital 
forces  requires  a  good  constitution.  One  may  say  that 
these  do  not  always  come  to  the  teacher.  Though  they 
may  not  come  all  at  once,  yet  most  teachers  who  have 
taught  long  in  rural  districts  have  encountered  these 
strains  upon  their  health,  and  some  even  worse  than  these. 

The  Need  of  Strong  Nerves.  —  The  work  of  the  school- 
room is  a  constant  drain  upon  the  nervous  system.  In 
regard  to  the  control  of  a  schoolroom  the  words  of  Holy 
Writ  are  true,  "  Not  by  might,  nor  by  power,  but  by  my 
spirit."  Control  is  accomplished  more  by  spiritual  than 
by  physical  forces.  The  old-time  teacher  tried  to  govern 
by  physical  force,  but  the  government  never  was  good. 
Fear  was  predominant  in  this  scheme  and  the  child  was 
not  led  to  self-control.  No  better  use  can  be  made  of 
the  influence  of  mind  over  mind  than  in  school  govern- 
ment, but  this  consumes  nerve  force,  and  the  teacher 
who  is  to  succeed  must  start  with  a  generous  supply. 

Good  Disposition.  —  In  order  to  succeed,  the  teacher 
should  be  kindly  disposed  toward  children.  The  noise 
and  worry  of  the  school  work  upon  one's  nerves  and  are 
inclined  to  make  a  person  irritable.  If  a  person  is  in 
sympathy  with  the  children  and  can  enter  into  their  joys 
and  sports,  he  need  not  grow  old  and  cross,  but  may  live 
young  in  life  and  spirit. 

The  grace  that  the  teacher  needs  in  good  measure 
should  not  be  the  kind  that  is  content  with  anything  that 
happens,  but  the  kind  that  suffers  long  and  is  willing 
still  to  suffer  that  things  may  come  to  pass  just  right. 
Children  are  not  as  thoughtful  as  grown  people  would 
have  them,  and  many  things  occur  in  the  schoolroom  that 


The  Teacher  —  His  Quahfications         47 

"  cannot  be  cured  but  must  be  endured."  The  children 
are  not  the  only  ones  who  draw  upon  the  teacher's  patience. 
Often  patrons  and  even  school  boards  are  not  in  the 
closest  touch  and  sympathy  with  the  work  of  the  teacher. 
They  do  not  see  things  from  his  viewpoint  and  some- 
times hinder  rather  than  help  the  work.  All  this  calls  for 
patience.  Happy  is  the  teacher  who  has  "  learned  to 
labor  and  to  wait." 

MENTAL  EQUIPMENT 

Thorough  Knowledge  of    Common   Branches.  —  The 

teacher  may  be  deficient  in  many  things  that  are  de- 
sirable and  yet  be  quite  successful;  but  the  district 
school  teacher,  who  undertakes  to  teach  without  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  common  branches,  is  sure  to  prove  more 
or  less  of  a  failure.  He  undertakes  to  teach  these  very 
subjects,  but  how  can  he  teach  that  which  he  himself  does 
not  know?  Then,  first  of  all  educational  preparations 
for  teaching  a  rural  school,  is  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
those  branches  that  have  become  fundamental  in  our 
educational  system.  Some  young  men  undertake  to  teach 
before  they  can  write  a  legible  hand  or  express  their 
thoughts  in  passable  English.  Some  young  women  under- 
take to  teach  before  they  have  mastered  the  principles  of 
arithmetic,  or  have  comprehended  the  simple  logic  of 
events  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  These  people 
fail,  but  it  may  not  be  checked  up  against  them.  They 
may  receive  their  pay  as  teachers  when  by  right  they 
should  pay  tuition  for  the  privilege  of  practicing  on  inno- 
cent children.  In  these  cases  the  would-be  teachers 
learn  more  than  their  pupils. 

Knowledge  of  Advanced  Studies.  —  No  one  can  teach 
all  that  he  knows.    He  must  have  some  store  in  reserve. 


48  The  Rural  School 

The  logic  of  much  of  United  States  history  dates  back 
into  English  history.  Many  of  the  principles  of  arithme- 
tic can  be  explained  only  through  a  knowledge  of  algebra 
or  geometry.  Many  things  that  come  up  in  grammar  and 
composition  require  a  knowledge  of  "rhetoric  to  make  them 
plain.  Hence  the  teacher  of  common  branches  needs  at 
least  some  knowledge  of  advanced  studies.  The  high 
schools  are  demanding  college  trained  teachers,  and  the 
day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  district  schools  will  de- 
mand teachers  with  at  least  a  high  school  education. 

Professional  Training.  -  Not  only  should  a  teacher 
know  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  but  he  should  also  give 
some  thought  and  study  to  learning  how  to  teach  these 
subjects.  There  is  an  impression  among  those  outside 
the  craft  that  any  one  who  knows  a  subject  knows  how  to 
teach  it.  The  architect  knows  a  house,  knows  how  it 
should  be  built,  but  he  lacks  skill  in  using  the  tools  to 
build  the  house.  He  still  needs  to  know  how  to  use  the 
plane  and  saw  that  he  may  fit  rafter  to  rafter,  and  make 
joints  that  will  pass  the  inspection  of  the  master  builder. 

In  the  same  manner,  it  is  true  in  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing that  the  teacher  needs  to  know  the  ''  how  "  as  well  as 
the  "  what."  A  good  many  teachers  have  acquired  this 
skill  by  years  of  practice  and  experience  in  the  school- 
room, but  this  is  an  expensive  process  and  its  evil  results 
fall  upon  the  pupils  of  such  schools.  It  is  unfair  that  a 
teacher  should  learn  his  trade  by  practicing  upon  those 
whom  he  is  paid  to  teach.  We  do  not  think  of  hiring  an 
unskilled  man  to  build  a  house,  for  it  would  be  too  ex- 
pensive. Nor  would  we  hire  the  architect  to  do  the  car- 
penter work.  Each  has  his  work,  and  in  business  we  rec- 
ognize this  and  give  to  each  man  his  place.  We  should 
recognize  this  in  teaching,  also,  and  require  some  train- 
ing in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching.    The  city  schools 


The  Teacher  —  His  QuaHfications         49 

generally  are  requiring  this  training  either  in  a  normal 
school  or  through  experience  in  the  schoolroom.  It  is 
time  for  the  rural  schools  to  raise  their  standard,  also. 

Practice  Teaching.  —  Along  with  the  theory  of  teach- 
ing, should  go  practice  teaching  under  skilled  supervisors. 
Possibly  observation  of  model  recitations,  conducted  by 
a  trained  teacher,  should  precede  any  teaching  by  the 
pupil.  Such  work  followed  by  a  recitation  on  the  lesson 
presented,  calling  attention  to  how  the  teacher  had  il- 
lustrated in  actual  work  the  theory  that  had  previously 
been  studied,  will  save  the  young  teacher  from  committing 
many  blunders  and  save  the  pupils  from  the  evil  effect  of 
practice  teaching. 

Training  for  Rural  Schools.  —  What  is  given  above  is 
more  or  less  general,  and  is  needful  whether  the  person 
is  to  teach  in  the  city  or  in  the  country.  But  there  is  a 
certain  training  which  is  desirable  for  teachers  of  rural 
schools  to  fit  them  for  the  special  needs  of  the  country. 

While  the  normal  schools  offer  an  extended  course  in 
professional  isubjects,  the  rural  schools  may  be  willing 
at  the  present  to  content  themselves  with  less  than  a  com- 
plete course  in  psj^chology,  philosophy  of  education, 
history  of  education,  school  law,  school  management  and 
methods  of  teaching.  Yet  a  knowledge  of  some  of  these 
subjects  seems  almost  necessary  to  any  degree  of  success. 
Before  going  into  the  schoolroom  a  person  should  have 
some  idea  of  how  to  conduct  a  recitation;  how  to  make 
out  a  program  and  follow  it;  how  to  govern  a  room  full 
of  children  with  as  little  friction  as  possible;  how  to 
start  a  class  in  reading,  in  numbers,  etc.  All  of  this  pre- 
supposes some  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of  child 
life.  The  elements  of  these  subjects  may  be  comprehended 
by  young  people  who  have  attained  the  age  when  their 
judgment  is  supposed  to  be  mature  enough  to  allow  them 


50  The  Rural  School 

to  teach  school,  and  states  are  raising  the  requirements 
along  these  lines  from  year  to  year.  It  will  probably  be  a 
long  time  before  we  have  reached  the  requirement  of  the 
German  schools,  where  every  teacher  must  have  normal 
school  training. 

The  following  is  the  course  which  is  offered  in  the 
secondary  department  of  the  Kansas  State  Normal  School 
to  students  who  expect  to  go  into  the  rural  schools  to 
teach.  It  is  very  similar  to  the  course  now  given  in  over 
one  hundred  high  schools  in  the  state  of  Kansas.  This 
course,  completed,  carries  with  it  a  one-year  state  cer- 
tificate entitling  the  holder  to  teach  one  year  in  elemen- 
tary schools. 

Course  of  Study,  Kansas  Normal  High  School 


English 3  units 

Algebra 1  " 

Geometry 1  " 

Arithmetic Yi  " 

History 1  " 

Civics Vi  " 

Physiology Yi  " 

Agriculture 2  " 

Physics 1  " 

Geography 1  " 

Psychology H  [* 

Rural  School  Management Yi  " 

Manual  Training ) 

Domestic  Science >  2  " 

Drawing  and  Hand  Work ) 

Music Vi  " 


Explanation:  A  unit  means  a  year's  work,  five  recitations  per 
week. 

It  might  be  well  to  say  in  regard  to  some  of  these  sub- 
jects that  they  have  special  applications  to  practical  life. 
For  example,  the  course  in  physiology  pertains  to  rural 
health  problems,  the  hygiene  of  kitchen  and  barn,  be- 


The  Teacher  —  His  QuaHfications         51 

sides  the  general  laws  of  health.  The  course  in  physics 
deals  with  practical  problems  of  the  farm  and  home.  Agri- 
culture includes  nature  study,  agronomy,  farm  manage- 
ment, etc.  Rural  school  management  is  the  study  of 
school  management  aj^plied  especially  to  rural  schools. 
Manual  training  and  domestic  science  are  both  special 
courses  designed  for  country  teachers,  and  treat  of  farm 
and  farm  home  subjects.  The  boys  in  manual  training 
design  and  make  models  for  farm  gates,  moulds  for 
cement  posts,  plans  for  barns,  etc.  The  girls  study  farm 
cooking,  serving  of  country  dinners,  economy  of  the 
woman's  work  on  the  farm,  etc.  The  drawing  is  elemen- 
tary, such  as  will  prepare  for  teaching  in  a  mixed  school ; 
the  hand  work  consists  of  seat  work,  paper  cutting,  mat 
weaving,  basketry,  and  raffia  work. 

The  course  in  the  normal  college  includes  advanced 
work  along  these  lines,  taking  up  rural  problems  and 
county  supervision,  and  a  course  in  chemistry  applied  to 
the  kitchen  and  the  farm.  Teachers  completing  such 
courses  as  these  will  be  well  prepared  for  rural  school 
work. 

Ejiowledge  of  Rural  Life.  —  The  teacher  who  is  going 
into  a  rural  district  should  know  more  than  the  city  girl 
who  went  into  ecstasies  over  her  uncle's  "  hand-painted 
barn."  It  is  a  good  thing  for  the  women  teachers  to  know 
how  to  make  bread,  and  something  of  the  chemistry  of 
the  process;  how  to  make  a  dress  and  fit  it;  how  to  milk 
a  cow  and  make  the  butter,  in  short,  how  to  do  the  house- 
work of  a  country  home.  They  will  thus  be  more  in 
sympathy  with  rural  people  and  rural  conditions.  It 
would  not  be  a  hindrance  if  a  man  teacher  knew  how  to 
farm,  raise  corn  and  hogs,  cattle  and  horses.  If  he  had 
walked  between  the  handles  of  a  plow,  the  fact  would  not 
make  him  worth  less  to  the  boys  of  the  school.     By  the 


52  The  Rural  School 

way,  it  would  be  a  good  thing  if  every  boy  could  come  in 
contact  with  a  good  man  teacher  somewhere  in  his  school 
life.  It  is  to  be  deplored  that  the  men  are  deserting  the 
district  schools.  Kansas  had  about  47%  of  male  teachers 
in  1870,  but  in  1908-1909  only  about  19%  of  the  teachers 
were  men.  Another  trouble  with  the  rural  schools  is 
that  we  have  been  trying  to  pattern  after  the  city  schools. 
What  we  need  are  schools  suited  to  the  rural  conditions, 
taught  by  teachers  who  know  and  are  in  sympathy  with 
rural  conditions. 

ATTENTION  TO  BUSINESS  DETAILS 

Knowledge  of  Business.  —  One  of  the  first  things  a 
prospective  teacher  is  called  upon  to  do  is  to  sign  a  con- 
tract. Many  young  people  just  beginning  teaching  have 
little  conception  of  its  importance  and  character.  It  is 
the  first  they  have  ever  signed  or  with  which  they  have 
had  anything  to  do.  What  it  means  they  have  not  thought 
nor  do  they  know  what  is  in  it,  except  that  it  gives  them 
a  school.  If  every  contract  were  carefully  read  before 
it  was  signed,  there  would  be  less  misunderstanding 
and  trouble  afterwards.  The  teachers'  contract  contains 
twenty  or  more  specifications,  and  the  law  provides  a 
severe  penalty  for  its  violation. 

But  a  contract  is  only  one  of  many  things  of  a  business 
nature  a  teacher  should  know.  The  business  man  has 
complained  that  the  boys  and  girls  from  our  schools  do 
not  know  much  about  practical  business.  They  learn 
what  there  is  in  the  books,  but  if  they  are  given  some 
simple  problem  outside  they  are  puzzled.  It  is  not  much 
wonder  that  this  is  true  when  we  realize  how  little  the 
teachers  know  about  actual  business.  Even  the  men  in 
the  teaching  profession  are  seldom  recognized  in  business 


The  Teacher  —  His  Qualifications         53 

circles.  Every  teacher  should  be  sufficiently  conversant 
with  the  common  business  transactions  of  the  community 
to  understand  them  and  to  apply  the  principles  of  the 
book  to  them.  Also  a  teacher  should  be  able  to  give 
problems  of  a  practical  nature  illustrating  and  applying 
the  business  of  the  neighborhood. 

Making  Application.  —  (1)  By  Letter.  When  the  teacher 
is  applying  for  a  school  away  from  his  home  county,  it 
often  becomes  necessary  to  write  a  letter  of  application. 
This  should  be  done  with  great  care.  First,  he  should 
choose,  if  possible,  business  paper  and  envelope  to  match; 
he  should  use  pen  and  ink  and  not  a  pencil;  the  paper 
should  be  folded  correctly  so  that  it  will  fill  the  envelope 
neatly  (the  way  to  fold  depends  on  the  kind  of  paper 
used);  the  address  on  the  envelope  should  be  in  a  plain, 
neat  hand  and  end  near  the  lower  right-hand  corner.  The 
mechanics  of  the  letter,  punctuation,  orthography,  para- 
graphing, margining,  etc.  should  be  faultless.  The  parts 
of  the  letter,  the  superscription,  the  body  and  the  sub- 
scription should  be  so  arranged  that  the  letter  will  present 
a  neat  appearance.  In  the  body  of  the  letter  the  very 
best  English  at  the  command  of  the  writer  should  be 
used;  not  only  English  that  is  grammatically  correct, 
but  such  as  expresses  the  thought  in  a  pleasing  way. 
The  author  lent  his  aid  in  electing  a  young  lady  to  a  posi- 
tion as  teacher  of  English  in  a  high  school  over  several 
other  applicants  because  of  the  pleasing  style  of  her  letter. 

Usually  the  body  of  the  letter  should  contain  three 
paragraphs,  the  first,  the  formal  application,  beginning, 
however,  with  some  introductory  remark  as  to  source  of 
information  of  vacancy;  the  second,  the  teacher's  educa- 
tional qualifications  and  experience;  the  third,  his  refer- 
ences to  persons  who  know  of  his  education,  experience 
and  moral  character.    A  fourth  paragraph  may  be  added, 


54  The  Rural  School 

if  the  applicant  desires  to  assure  the  board  of  his  willing- 
ness to  spare  no  pains  and  efforts  to  make  the  school  a 
success,  or  to  express  his  confidence  in  his  ability  to  teach 
and  govern  the  school  with  the  hearty  cooperation  of 
the  board, 

(2)  In  Person.  It  is  always  better,  if  possible,  to 
make  the  application  in  person.  The  board  wants  to  see 
the  individual  whom  it  is  to  place  in  charge  of  its  school; 
and  the  teacher  should  desire  to  see  the  board  for  whom 
he  is  to  work.  It  is  as  much  to  the  teacher's  interest  to 
see  and  become  acquainted  with  the  board  and  the  neigh- 
borhood, as  it  is  to  the  board's  advantage  to  get  an  oppor- 
tunity to  estimate  the  teacher's  worth  by  his  appearance. 
Teachers  must  know  that  there  are  some  schools  which 
they  do  not  want,  that  there  are  some  schools  in  which 
they  would  make  a  failure,  perhaps;  that,  when  they  find 
conditions  in  a  locality  uncongenial  to  them,  they  should 
move  on  to  the  next  district. 

When  making  application  in  person,  the  teacher  should 
present  as  good  an  appearance  as  possible.  This  does  not 
mean  that  he  should  wear  expensive  or  gaudy  clothing, 
but  that  he  should  be  neat  and  clean.  He  needs  to  be  able 
to  present  his  case,  not  boastingly,  but  in  clear  and  con- 
fident terms.  It  will  not  be  considered  egotism  on  his 
part  if  he  tell  of  his  educational  qualifications,  his  ex- 
perience as  a  teacher,  and  what  he  is  confident  he  can  do 
for  the  school.  This  is  what  the  board  wants  to  know, 
and,  if  he  does  not  tell  these  things  himself,  it  may  not 
find  them  out  in  time  to  decide  in  his  favor. 

If  the  application  is  to  be  made  to  one  individual,  as 
the  superintendent,  it  simplifies  the  matter,  and  the 
teacher  can  usually  talk  more  openly  and  freely,  knowing 
that  a  superintendent  is  more  in  sympathy  with  him  and 
his  ideals.     If  the  employing  board  consist  of  several 


The  Teacher  —  His  Qualifications         55 

members,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  see  each  one;  but  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  often  one  man  is  the  member  of 
the  board,  and  as  he  votes  the  board  decides.  To  act 
legally  the  members  meet  and  act  as  a  board  and  not  as 
individuals. 

REFERENCES 

Colgrove,  Teacher  and  the  School  (chapter  2).  1910. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.25. 

Button,  School  Management  (chapters  1  and  2).  1903. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.00. 

Foght,  American  Rural  School  (chapter  5).  1910.  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Gilbert,  The  School  and  its  Life  (chapters  8,  9,  10). 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  $1.25. 

McKeever,  Psychologic  Method  in  Teaching  (chapter  4)- 
A.  Flanagan  &  Co.,  $1.00. 

Sabin,  Common  Sense  Didactics  (Preparation  for  Teach- 
ing).   Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  $1.00. 


Chapter  VI 
THE   TEACHER  — HIS   PERSONALITY 

One  teacher  may  step  into  a  room,  and  immediately 
every  pupil  is  quiet  and  orderly;  another  may  call  for 
order,  ring  the  bell,  and  even  rebuke  and  punish,  yet  dis- 
order is  everywhere.  To  one  teacher  the  pupils  are  re- 
spectful, and  to  another  they  are  disrespectful.  Upon  one 
they  will  play  pranks,  set  a  tack  on  his  chair,  turn  his 
watch  forward,  or  hide  his  hat;  upon  another  no  one 
would  think  of  playing  a  trick,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
every  one  is  anxious  and  willing  to  assist  him  in  every 
way  possible. 

Personality;  What  it  is.  —  The  above  conditions  may 
be  explained  by  saying  that  it  is  the  personality  of  the 
teacher  which  makes  the  difference.  Personality,  that 
indefinable  atmosphere  which  surrounds  a  person  and 
commands  respect  and  obedience,  is  almost  synonymous 
with  individuality  or  personal  influence.  We  say  of  one 
person  that  he  has  a  strong  personality,  and  of  another 
that  he  has  a  weak  personality.  One  commands  respect 
and  exerts  a  strong  influence,  it  may  be  for  good  or  evil; 
the  other  commands  little  respect  and  his  influence  is 
confined  to  a  small  circle  of  friends  and  acquaintances. 

One  person  by  stately  form  and  beautiful  appearance 
commands  respect  at  first  sight.  Boys  especially  admire 
persons  of  strong  and  robust  stature.  Physical  perfection 
is  their  ideal,  and  they  are  willing  to  offer  homage  and 

56 


The  Teacher  —  His  Personahty  57 

submission  at  its  shrine.  But  some  of  these  persons  who 
at  first  command  our  respect  by  their  very  presence,  after 
a  while  lose  our  confidence.  We  learn  that  they  are  not 
brave  and  courageous  as  we  supposed  at  first,  but,  al- 
though physically  able,  are  cowards,  —  perhaps  both 
physical  and  moral  cowards.  Their  inner  selves  do  not 
measure  up  to  their  physical  selves.  Their  wishes  and 
demands  are  disregarded  and  they  are  not  able  to  compel 
obedience  and  respect.  Observers  have  expected  the 
soul  to  be  as  large  and  as  beautiful  as  the  body,  but  they 
were  disappointed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  appearance  of  others  is  so  dis- 
appointing and  unprepossessing  that  at  first  we  are  re- 
pelled by  them  and  think  that  we  can  never  have  any 
respect  for  such  persons.  However,  when  we  become 
acquainted  with  them,  we  find  their  mental  acumen  so 
keen  and  their  ability  to  assist  us  in  our  thinking  so 
great,  that  we  forget  their  physical  defects  and  pay  our 
homage  to  them  as  the  ancients  did  to  Psyche,  the  god- 
dess of  mind. 

In  a  certain  village,  there  lived  a  woman,  with  whom  the 
writer  is  well  acquainted,  who  could  not  command  much 
respect  bj''  her  physical  presence,  for  she  had  a  poor  weak 
body;  nor  was  her  mental  ability  great.  Yet  her  soul  was 
so  large  and  so  good  that  every  one  who  knew  her  re- 
spected her,  and  she  was  a  power  for  good  in  that 
community. 

William  E.  Gladstone,  Prime  Minister  of  England, 
combined  all  of  these  qualities.  During  his  long  and  busy 
career  as  a  statesman,  his  physical  manhood  was  never 
neglected,  but  he  was  able,  in  what  might  have  been  ex- 
pected to  be  his  declining  years,  to  chop  wood  like  a 
hardy  woodman.  But  it  was  his  brilliant  genius  com- 
bined with  his  unswerving  regard  for  right  and  justice 


58  The  Rural  School 

which  made  him  the  first  man  in  all  England  and  gained 
for  him  the  title  of  the  "  Grand  Old  Man." 

Personality  is  made  up  of  physical  appearance,  mental 
acumen  and  soul  greatness.  Each  of  these  has  its  influ- 
ence upon  those  with  whom  we  come  in  contact,  and  each 
should  be  considered  in  the  study  of  this  subject. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  STRONG  PERSONALITY 

The  question  of  interest  to  every  person  and  especially 
to  the  one  who  expects  to  become  a  teacher  is  this,  "  Is 
my  personality  a  fixed  quantity  or  may  I  expand  and 
improve  it?  "  A  good  many  are  inclined  to  think  that  it 
is  unchangeable.  But  if  the  question  be  put  thus,  "  Can 
I  maintain  and  improve  my  physical,  mental  and  moral 
condition?  "  the  answer  is  apparent  to  all.  A  few  sug- 
gestions will  be  given  which  may  help  persons  desirous 
of  possessing  a  strong  and  influential  personality. 

The  Maintenance  of  Physical  Vigor.  —  In  order  that  a 
person  may  exert  his  best  influence,  it  is  necessary  that  he 
maintain  his  health  at  the  very  best  possible  level.  If 
a  teacher  is  all  bent  over  on  account  of  pain  in  his  chest, 
or  if  he  has  a  throbbing  headache  from  loss  of  sleep,  he 
cannot  exert  the  influence  that  he  would  otherwise,  if  he 
were  buoyant  with  health  and  vigor.  Thus,  it  becomes  a 
question  of  how  to  maintain  vigor  and  energy  and  at  the 
same  time  do  the  work  of  the  school. 

First,  find  a  good  boarding  place.  This  advice  will 
often  be  hard  to  follow,  and  in  some  places  it  is  almost 
impossible.  But  the  teacher  should  inquire  into  this  matter 
before  the  contract  is  signed.  In  some  districts  all  want 
to  board  the  teacher,  in  others  no  one  wants  that  privilege, 
and  in  still  others,  if  the  teacher  boards  at  a  certain  place, 
he  incurs  the  enmity  of  some  family  of  the  district.    Con- 


The  Teacher  —  His  Personality  59 

ditions  may  be  such  that  he  cannot  get  a  suitable  board- 
ing place  in  that  district,  and  in  this  case  he  had  better 
look  elsewhere  for  a  school.  When  it  is  advised  to  get  a 
good  boarding  place,  it  is  not  suggested  that  one  be 
overnice  about  a  place.  If  a  person  is  fastidious,  he  had 
better  not  go  to  the  country  to  teach  school.  But  he 
should  get  as  good  a  boarding  place  as  he  can,  a  place 
where  he  likes  the  cooking,  a  place  where  the  family  is 
congenial,  —  where  he  can  have  time  to  himself  and  will 
not  be  expected  to  entertain  the  other  members  of  the 
household,  nor  be  entertained  by  them  all  the  time  that 
he  is  at  home.  The  teacher  should  have  a  room  to  himself 
if  possible,  and  this  is  more  impera'cive  if  the  family  is 
large.  In  many  places  this  will  be  impossible,  and  he  will 
have  to  become  one  of  the  family  and  put  up  with  the 
accommodations  which  the  neighborhood  affords.  One 
had  better  walk  two  miles  and  have  a  good  home  when 
there,  than  to  board  next  to  the  schoolhouse  and  have 
accommodations  that  are  repugnant  to  his  tastes. 

The  teacher  needs  plenty  of  mind  and  nerve  rest  — 
sleep.  A  good  boarding  place  will  not  be  the  place  where 
they  have  supper  at  nine  and  begin  the  preparation  for 
breakfast  at  four  or  five  in  the  morning.  Then  too, 
there  are  the  parties  and  dances  that  may  tempt  the 
teacher  to  spend  strength  and  nervous  force  that  should  be 
conserved  for  use  in  the  schoolroom.  Very,  very  few 
teachers  can  go  to  dances  and  parties,  and  teach  a  school 
properly.  They  come  at  a  time  when  a  teacher  should 
be  in  bed  asleep.  This  is  not  intended  to  mean  that  a 
teacher  should  never  go  out  at  night  while  he  is  teaching 
school.  There  are  occasions  when  the  teacher  should  be 
a  leader  in  the  social  events  of  the  neighborhood,  but 
those  events  should  not  be  mere  dances  and  parties  in 
the  common  acceptance  of  the  terms.    Then  again,  there 


60  The  Rural  School 

is  the  teacher  who  thinks  he  must  work  late  at  night  or 
he  will  not  get  through  with  his  next  day's  duties.  It 
is  true  that  a  teacher  should  prepare  his  lessons  for  the 
next  day,  but  he  must  so  apportion  his  time  that  he 
shall  be  bright  and  fresh  for  the  next  day's  work. 
Freshness  of  spirit  and  vigor  of  mind  are  as  indispen- 
sable as  well  planned  lessons.    Find  time  to  sleep. 

The  teacher  that  builds  up  and  maintains  his  health 
and  vigor  will  have  to  find  time  for  exercise  each  day, 
exercise  in  the  open  air.  Of  course,  if  the  walk  to  and 
from  the  schoolhouse  is  long,  it  may  suffice;  but  some 
exercise,  not  so  much  for  the  exercise  itself  as  for  the 
interest  that  it  elicits,  is  better.  Playing  a  game  such  as 
tennis,  basket  ball  or  croquet  for  an  hour  will  give  suf- 
ficient exercise,  and  at  the  same  time  will  add  pleasurable 
employment  for  the  mind.  If  one  enjoys  caring  for 
chickens  or  feeding  and  grooming  horses,  he  will  find 
suitable  exercise  for  each  day.  Let  no  one  think  that  he 
has  not  time  for  exercise;  he  has  not  time  to  omit  it. 

Mental  Improvement.  —  It  is  only  when  the  old  cells 
of  the  body  are  broken  down  and  throAvn  off  and  new  ones 
are  supplied  that  physical  vigor  and  vivacity  are  main- 
tained. So  it  is  with  the  mind.  If  it  doles  out  the  same 
instruction  from  day  to  day  and  from  year  to  year,  it 
becomes  dull  and  tired.  It  needs  vigorous  exercise.  It 
needs  to  have  its  mental  fibers  quickened  and  energized 
by  the  rapid  flow  of  red  corpuscles  bearing  the  life-giving 
oxygen.  The  mind  that  is  dull  will  not  of  its  own  account 
command  respect.  Its  possessor,  if  he  deserves  and  com- 
mands respect  at  all,  must  gain  it  from  some  other  source. 
The  question  comes  again,  "  How  shall  I  maintain  and 
increase  mental  vigor?  "  The  answer  is  almost  apparent, 
viz ;  give  the  mind  food  and  exercise.  To  the  new  teacher 
the  lessons  of  the  school  may  furnish  sufficient  mental 


The  Teacher  —  His  Personality  61 

work  for  the  first  year;  but  to  the  experienced  teacher 
who  has  gone  over  the  work  several  times,  it  gives  no 
mental  exercise  worth  mentioning  and  he  must  do  some- 
thing else  or  he  will  get  into  a  rut.  He  should  be  reading 
some  good  book,  something  not  exactly  along  the  line  of 
his  school  work,  that  will  cause  him  to  think.  It  may 
be  a  book  on  advanced  history,  or  psychology;  it  may  be 
philosophy  or  literature;  it  may  be  a  professional  book, 
history  of  education,  philosophy  of  education  or  methods. 
As  the  body  needs  exercise  different  from  the  work  of  the 
day,  so  the  mind  needs  to  make  new  flights  into  other 
realms  and  view  other  scenes.  In  "short,  keep  the  mind 
fresh  ])y  learning  something  new  each  day. 

Moral  Improvement.  —  The  teacher  who  thinks  that  he 
can  live  a  loose,  inconsistent  life  out  of  school  and  main- 
tain his  moral  standing  before  his  school,  deceives  him- 
self but  not  his  pupils,  for  they  will  soon  read  his  moral 
standing.  The  teacher  that  is  morally  weak  loses  his 
influence  with  his  school.  Pupils,  as  well  as  people  in 
general,  respect  the  person  who  has  moral  courage, 
who  has  moral  principle  and  is  willing  to  stand  by  it.  A 
teacher  once  stopped  men  from  betting  on  a  school  game 
of  ball;  they  heeded  him  simply  because  he  was  in  the 
right  and  they  knew  it;  otherwise  they  would  have 
laughed  him  to  scorn.  Though  these  men  were  in  the 
habit  of  gambling  at  every  game,  they  gave  back  the 
money  and  looked  quietly  on  with  the  other  spectators. 

It  is  moral  greatness  more  than  physical  prowess  or 
mental  acuteness  that  determines  the  teacher's  person- 
ality. This  is  not  a  veneer  that  may  be  put  on  as  we  put 
on  our  Sunday  clothes,  but  it  is  real  moral  greatness.  It 
comes  from  moral  thinking  and  moral  living.  He  cannot 
be  morally  great  unless  he  is  thinking  good,  pure  thoughts, 
for  as  Miss  Brownlee,  formerly  of  the  La  Grange  School, 


62  The  Rural  School 

Toledo,  Ohio,  has  said,  "  Thoughts  are  things."  The 
fountain  must  be  pure  or  the  stream  will  not  be  pure. 
Thoughts  tend  to  work  themselves  out  through  the  mus- 
cular organism.  Thoughts  become  deeds.  "  Out  of  the 
abundance  of  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketh,"  expresses 
the  same  truth.  People  expect  the  teacher  to  do  just 
about  right.  Although  they  may  do  very  bad  things 
themselves,  they  will  complain  to  the  county  superin- 
tendent if  the  teacher  steps  just  a  little  from  the  path  of 
rectitude.  Public  opinion  has  set  a  very  high  standard 
for  the  teacher,  and  it  is  right  that  it  should,  for  the  per- 
son who  teaches  children  should  live  a  consistent  life.  To 
the  credit  of  the  profession,  it  can  be  truly  said  that  very 
few  teachers  disgrace  their  calling  by  immoral  lives. 

That  we  can  maintain  and  improve  our  personality 
it  is  easy  to  conclude.  As  we  improve  our  physical  con- 
dition, as  we  grow  mentally  and  morally,  we  improve  our 
personality.  As  we  grow  greater  in  being,  we  strengthen 
that  which  gives  us  power  with  men.  The  young  teacher 
ought  not  to  expect  to  have  as  great  a  personal  influence 
as  he  will  have  in  days  to  come,  and  the  teacher  of  years 
of  experience  will  not  be  far  wrong  if  he  thinks  the  same. 

REFERENCES 

Benson,  Personality  of  the  Teacher.  Educational  Re- 
view 37: 217  (March,  1909).  This  article  by  Arthur  Chris- 
topher Benson,  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  is  an 
excellent  treatise  on  the  subject. 

Colgrove,  Teacher  and  the  School  (pp.  62-64)-  1910. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.25. 

Jones,  Principles  of  Education  (chapter  5,  The  Teacher 
as  an  Influence).    1911.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.00. 

Maxwell,  Personal  Power  of  the  Teacher.  N.  E.  A. 
Proceedings  1908:  116. 


Chapter  VII 
THE    FIRST    DAY 

PREPARATION  FOR  THE  FIRST  DAY 

What  shall  be  the  work  of  the  first  day,  and  just  how 
and  when  shall  each  thing  l)e  done?  are  questions  that 
should  not  be  left  until  time  for  the  work  to  begin  but 
should  be  answered  in  detail  beforehand.  The  young 
teacher  especially  must  give  careful  thought  to  the  de- 
tails of  this  day's  work.  A  good  beginning  is  of  great 
importance,  as  its  impressions  will  last  and  will  help  to 
make  the  work  of  the  remainder  of  the  school  easier  or 
more  difficult  as  the  case  may  be. 

Inspection  of  House  and  Grounds.  —  There  are  certain 
things  that  should  be  inspected  before  the  first  day;  in 
fact,  all  the  plans  for  this  day  must  be  made  in  advance, 
and  it  is  well  to  know  what  can  and  ought  to  be  done. 
Of  course  nothing  can  be  accomplished  until  the  contract 
is  made  and  signed;  but  as  soon  as  this  has  been  done,  or 
at  least  a  week  or  two  before  school  is  to  begin,  the  teacher 
should  visit  the  schoolhouse  and  inspect  the  house  and 
grounds,  the  outbuildings  and  well,  if  there  be  one. 
During  this  inspection,  note  should  be  made  of  the  con- 
ditions of  the  floor,  walls,  windows,  and  outbuildings  as 
to  cleanliness;  also  as  to  whether  repairs  are  needed. 
The  result  of  this  visit  should  be  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  board,  and  courteous  but  insistent  request  made  that 

63 


64  The  Rural  School 

the  school  premises  be  put  in  suitable  condition  for  school. 
Sometimes  the  weeds  in  the  school  yard  are  so  high  and 
thick  as  seriously  to  impede  the  progress  of  the  school 
and  at  the  same  time  to  give  the  school  a  bad  name. 
While  all  these  things  are  important,  yet  a  teacher  may  be 
unreasonable  in  his  requests.  As  a  rule,  boards  are  will- 
ing to  clean  the  house,  grounds  and  outbuildings  and  make 
reasonable  improvements,  providing  the  matter  is  brought 
to  their  attention  in  the  right  way.  Teachers  should  re- 
member that  school  officers  are  usually  busy  men,  and 
also,  that  they  get  no  compensation  for  the  time  and  work 
they  do  in  connection  with  the  office  of  school  directors. 
The  teacher  should  bring  these  things  to  the  notice  of  the 
board  early  so  they  will  have  plenty  of  time  to  get  this 
work  done.  Sometimes  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  any 
one  to  do  work  of  the  kind  needed,  for  every  one  is  busy ; 
in  this  case  a  little  patience  is  necessary.  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  teacher  will  cease  efforts  before  the  school 
premises  are  put  in  shape  for  school. 

Some  one  may  ask,  ''  Will  the  teacher  be  justified  in 
closing  school  until  the  board  has  had  this  work  com- 
pleted? "  Yes,  the  teacher  might  be  justified,  but  it 
would  not  be  good  policy  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to 
do  such  a  thing.  The  teacher  had  better  interest  the 
large  boys  and  girls  in  the  project  and  take  a  Friday 
afternoon  and  clean  the  house  in  this  way,  rather  than 
live  in  an  unclean  house  or  stop  the  school.  Resort  to 
either  of  these  methods  will  not  often  be  necessary. 

The  teacher  needs  the  register  for  the  names  of  the 
pupils  of  last  year's  school  and  such  other  information 
as  it  may  contain,  and  he  also  needs  the  classification 
report  in  order  to  be  familiar  with  the  classification  of  the 
school.  The  teacher  should  take  these  with  him  and 
should  study  the  names  so  that  they  will  not  be  unfa- 


The  First  Day  65 

miliar  to  him  when  he  meets  the  pupils  for  the  first  time. 
From  the  classification  report  the  teacher  can  outline 
the  work  for  each  class  for  the  first  day  and  the  lessons 
to  be  assigned.  If  the  program  of  the  former  teacher  can 
be  found,  it  will  be  of  service  in  making  a  program  for 
the  first  day,  or  it  may  be  advantageous  to  use  it  without 
any  change. 

METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  FOR   THE  FIRST  DAY 

1.  Be  the  first  at  the  schoolhouse  in  the  morning.  This 
may  be  quite  early,  for  the  pupils  in  a  rural  community 
are  usually  excited  about  school  the  first  day  and  anxious 
to  see  the  new  teacher  or  to  get  there  first  to  have  the 
choice  of  seats.  There  are  other  reasons  for  being  there 
early  on  the  first  day  which  are  best  known  to  the  boys  of 
the  neighborhood.  If  the  teacher  is  not  there  before  the 
pupils,  some  plans  may  be  laid  which  are  not  to  the 
teacher's  advantage;  at  least,  the  teacher  is  on  the  safe 
side,  if  he  is  at  the  schoolhouse  when  the  first  pupils  come. 

2.  Assign  seats.  Greet  pupils  kindly  as  they  enter  the 
schoolroom,  learn  their  names,  and  assign  them  seats. 
Assign  has  been  said  designedly,  for  it  must  be  under- 
stood from  the  beginning  that  the  teacher  has  this  right. 
If  the  teacher  prefers,  the  pupils  may  be  allowed  to  select 
their  seats  for  the  time  being;  but  it  must  be  with  the 
distinct  understanding  that  the  teacher  reserves  the  right 
to  change  them  whenever  there  seems  to  be  a  need  for 
such  change.  It  may  be  best  to  talk  over  the  matter  of 
seats  with  each  pupil,  if  there  is  opportunity.  The 
teacher  should  not  be  dictatorial,  and  assign  seats  merely 
to  show  authority.  If  a  pupil  has  a  good  reason  why  he 
wants  to  sit  in  a  certain  place,  it  may  be  the  best  policy 
to  let  him  sit  there.    But  often  the  reason  for  sitting  in  a 


66  The  Rural  School 

certain  seat  will  not  bear  inspection  and  is  not  for  the 
best  interests  of  the  school  or  the  pupil.  The  teacher 
may  have  some  plan  of  seating  the  room  which  the 
choosing  of  seats  will  entirely  overthrow.  In  this  case 
the  thing  is  to  ask  for  cooperation  in  carrying  out  this 
plan;  this  may  settle  all  difficulties.  Usually,  the  desire 
to  select  seats  has  some  element  of  disorder  in  it.  The 
pupils  want  to  sit  together  that  they  may  have  a  good 
time,  or  boys  want  to  sit  in  the  rear  seats  so  that  they 
will  be  a  long  way  from  the  teacher.  Here  they  hope 
to  have  more  opportunities  for  whispering  without  the 
teacher's   notice. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  matter 
of  seating  may  sometimes  be  quite  a  serious  problem. 
Understand  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  no  definite  rule  can  be 
laid  down  for  the  teacher  to  follow.  Only  a  few  of  the  con- 
ditions that  may  arise  can  be  suggested,  and  the  teacher 
will  have  to  do  his  own  thinking  and  make  his  own  judg- 
ments as  to  the  best  way  to  meet  those  difficulties  that 
confront  him.  The  teacher  who  undertakes  to  use  un- 
digested book  methods,  or  even  methods  learned  at  a 
normal  school,  will  fail.  The  good  teacher  adapts  methods; 
he  does  not  adopt  them. 

3.  Call  school  pro7nptly  at  nine  o'clock.  Keep  the 
time  which  the  neighborhood  generally  keeps.  If  they 
all  keep  sun  time,  all  right,  it  will  do  for  the  school;  but 
whatever  time  the  teacher  keeps,  let  it  be  accurate  time 
and  let  him  follow  it  rigidly. 

4.  Open  school  with  appropriate  exercises.  Singing, 
reading  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  and  prayer,  or  the  re- 
peating of  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  a  good  form  of  opening 
exercises;  the  best  according  to  the  individual  notion  of 
many.  But  in  some  places  the  opposition  to  Scripture 
reading  and  prayer  may  be  so  strong  that  the  teacher 


The  First  Day  67 

will  want  to  use  some  other  form  of  general  exercises.  In 
this  case  singing,  quotations,  current  events,  the  reading 
of  a  good  book,  instructions  in  morals  and  other  special 
features  which  the  teacher  may  wish  to  introduce  may  be 
brought  in  at  this  time  and  in  a  way  take  the  place  of 
what  was  suggested  above.  The  opening  exercises  have 
a  purpose  to  fulfill,  viz.,  the  unifying  of  the  minds  of  the 
children,  —  "  the  bringing  in  of  their  wandering  minds 
and  placing  them  "  upon  their  lessons.  It  takes  a  little 
time  to  get  ready  for  work,  to  get  the  mind  off  the  out- 
side attractions,  or  distractions  as  the  case  may  be. 
For  this  purpose,  there  is  nothing  better  than  music,  for 
"  Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast." 

5.  Assign  lessons.  The  teacher  will  have  outlined 
lessons  for  each  class,  using  the  course  of  study  and  classi- 
fication as  a  basis.  Some  of  these  lessons  he  may  think 
best  to  write  upon  the  board  while  he  is  waiting  for 
time  to  call  school.  This  will  save  time  and  trouble  in 
doing  it  after  school  has  been  called.  These  first-day 
lessons  may  be  something  of  a  review,  but  they  will  not  be 
a  turning  of  the  whole  school  back  to  the  beginning  of  the 
book. 

Assign  new  lessons  as  your  judgment  dictates.  Do 
not  expect  pupils  to  recite  as  well  on  the  first  day  of 
school  as  when  they  left  off  the  work.  It  will  take  them 
a  few  days  to  adjust  themselves  to  school  work  again.  It 
is  seldom  that  students  should  go  back  to  the  first  of  the 
book.  A  few  days  of  review  will  often  fit  them  to  go  on 
from  where  they  left  off. 

6.  Classify  new  pupils.  Now  everybody  has  something 
to  do,  except  the  new  pupils  who  have  never  attended 
this  school  before,  and  possibly  the  beginners.  This  is  a 
good  time  to  look  after  the  new  pupils  and  classify  them 
temporarily.     The  best  that  can  be  done  at  this  time  is 


68  The  Rural  School 

to  give  an  oral  quiz  to  find  out  about  what  each  one  has 
done  in  school  before  coming  to  this  district.  Then 
classify  them  as  your  judgment  suggests  and  try  them 
out  in  class.  It  may  take  a  day  or  two  to  find  out  just 
where  each  one  belongs,  but  as  soon  as  possible  each  one 
should  be  assigned  to  his  proper  class. 

7.  Follow  a  program.  The  teacher  should  have  put 
up  a  program  before  the  opening  of  school,  either  the 
last  year's  program  or  the  one  he  has  made  for  the  day. 
He  is  now  ready  to  follow  this  program  and  call  classes 
according  as  they  are  suggested  by  it.  If  the  little  people 
are  to  recite  first,  they  can  then  be  given  seat  work  to 
occupy  their  time  while  the  other  classes  are  reciting. 

Follow  the  program  as  closely  as  possible;  at  least, 
dismiss  the  school  for  recesses  and  noon  hour  on  time  and 
give  the  full  length  of  time. 

Before  school  is  closed,  the  teacher  may  make  any 
announcements  concerning  changes  in  the  program, 
methods  of  calling  classes  and  passing  out  at  close  of 
periods,  or  any  other  regulation  of  the  school. 

8.  Close  school  promptly  at  four  o'clock.  The  work  of 
the  day  may  not  all  have  been  completed,  yet  if  all  have 
been  busy  from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  four  in 
the  afternoon  a  day's  work  has  been  done  and  it  is  time 
to  close  school.  Send  the  pupils  home  in  good  humor,  if 
possible,  feeling  that  they  have  done  a  day's  work. 

Method  of  Procedure  without  a  Classification  Re- 
port.—  1.  Make  a  program.  If  the  former  teacher  left 
no  program,  make  one  for  your  guidance  for  the  first 
day,  or  until  you  know  enough  about  the  school  so  that 
you  can  make  a  permanent  one. 

2.  Assign  lessons  to  older  pupils.  After  opening  ex- 
ercises, assign  lessons  to  all  pupils,  to  the  older  ones 
first.    An  easy  way,  and  probably  as  good  as  any,  is  to 


The  First  Day  69 

assign  a  lesson  to  all  who  think  they  belong  in  the  fifth 
reader,  a  lesson  to  all  in  the  fourth  reader,  to  all  in  the 
third  reader,  and  so  on  do^vn  to  the  chart  class. 

3.  Examine,  classify  and  assign  lessons  to  younger 
pupils.  Call  the  primary  pupils  for  recitation,  exami- 
nation, and  classification.  Of  course  this  is  not  to  be  a 
formal  examination  nor  a  rigid  classification,  but  you 
can  learn  about  as  well  what  a  child  can  do  in  this  way 
as  in  any  other.  You  will  want  to  take  their  names  and 
send  them  to  their  seats  with  some  seat  work  to  do.  Do 
not  expect  five-  and  six-year-olds  to  study  lessons  like 
older  pupils. 

Call  the  first  reader  class,  examine,  and  classify  them. 
Assign  the  next  lesson  and  seat  work. 

Call  the  second  reader  class,  examine,  classify,  and 
assign  work;  and  so  on  through  all  the  classes  and  during 
all  the  day.  Each  class  as  it  is  called  can  bring  the 
books  for  the  next  lesson. 

Summary.  —  The  object  the  teacher  should  have  in 
view  is  to  set  every  one  to  work  as  soon  as  possible  after 
opening  exercises  and  to  keep  him  busy  all  the  day. 
Make  the  first  day  a  full  day  of  work.  As  a  rule,  rural 
schools  have  short  terms,  and  parents  are  glad  to  have 
every  day  count. 

The  young  teacher  ^vill  do  well  to  assimilate  these 
plans  and  follow  them  quite  closely.  The  object  to  be 
obtained  by  using  these  suggestions  is  to  keep  every  one 
employed  while  the  school  is  being  organized.  One  of 
the  secrets  of  school  management  is  to  keep  every  one 
busy  at  some  useful  school  work.  Do  this  and  many  of  the 
other  things  will  take  care  of  themselves. 

To  the  experienced  teacher  it  may  be  said,  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  follow  these  suggestions  to  the  letter  in 
order  to  make  a  good  start  on  the  first  day;  but  if  teachers 


70  The  Rural  School 

have  been  wasting  time  in  getting  organized,  it  will  be 
well  to  heed  some  of  the  suggestions  offered  here,  so  that 
this  day  shall  count  with  every  other  day  as  a  day  of  work. 

REFERENCES 

Bagley,  Classroom  Management  (chapter  2).  1907. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Colgrove,  Teacher  and  the  School  {chapter  10).  1910. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.25. 

Dinsmore,  Teaching  a  District  School  (pp.  21-26).  1908. 
American  Book  Co.,  $1.00. 

Wray,  Jean  Mitchell's  School  (chapter  2).  Public  School 
Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  $1.00. 


Chapter  VIII 
THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 

That  there  is  a  great  waste  m  the  daily  work  of  our 
schools  is  apparent  to  any  one  who  has  investigated  this 
subject.  One  needs  but  to  visit  our  rural  schools  and  ob- 
serve the  number  of  minutes  spent  by  pupils  doing  noth- 
ing; or  inquire  of  young  people  whether  they  could  have 
done  their  regular  work  just  as  well  as  they  did,  and  in 
addition  many  other  agreeable  tasks,  such  as  manual 
training,  agriculture,  etc.,  had  these  been  set  apart  for 
them,  providing  the  teacher  knew  how  to  get  them  ac- 
complished, to  be  convinced  of  this  fact. 

It  is  not  our  intention,  however,  to  outline  what  addi- 
tional subjects  might  with  profit,  —  or  possibly  I  should 
say  must,  in  the  near  future,  be  introduced  into  the  pro- 
gram of  the  rural  school;  but,  rather,  to  give  some  sug- 
gestions about  the  making  of  a  daily  program  for  an 
average  country  school,  so  that  so77ie  of  this  waste  may  be 
eliminated. 

There  are  three  things  for  which  a  program  should  pro- 
vide, viz.,  study,  recitation,  and  recreation.  The  order 
in  which  these  have  been  placed  is  the  order  of  importance 
in  the  rural  school ;  at  any  rate,  allow  them  to  stand  in 
this  order,  for  it  is  the  study  part  of  the  program  that 
needs  emphasizing. 

71 


72  The  Rural  School 

THE  STUDY  PROGRAM 

In  every  store  employing  twenty  or  thirty  clerks  there 
is  a  definite  understanding  between  the  chief  clerk  and 
subordinate  clerks,  or  between  proprietor  and  clerks, 
where  each  one  is  to  work  and  just  what  each  one  is  to 
do.  One  man  does  not  sell  shoes,  silks,  and  clothing,  but 
each  has  his  place  and  his  work,  which  is  known  to  him- 
self and  to  the  head  of  the  establishment.  It  is  necessary 
that  there  be  system,  or  some  would  try  to  do  more  than 
they  could  do  well  and  others  would  do  comparatively 
nothing. 

The  teacher  is  to  be  at  the  head  of  an  establishment 
of  ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  workmen,  and  whether  each  one 
does  his  share  depends  upon  the  system  with  which  he 
organizes  this  force  of  busy  toilers. 

Will  some  work  while  others  play?  Will  some  inter- 
fere with  the  work  of  others?  This  is  the  case  in  many 
schools,  and  it  is  hard  to  eliminate  it  altogether;  but  this 
waste  of  time  can  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  by  sys- 
tematically organizing  the  forces.  The  storekeeper  might 
say  to  his  clerks,  "  I  want  you  to  sell  goods,"  but  rather 
he  says  to  one,  "  Go  into  my  store  and  sell  shoes;  "  to 
another,  "  Go  and  sell  dress  goods,"  and  to  a  third,  "  You 
may  sell  carpets."  Each  one  has  his  place  and  each  one 
has  his  work.  So  the  systematic  teacher  plans  for  the 
work  of  each  one,  and  knows  what  each  one  should  do 
each  hour  of  the  day. 

Not  only  should  the  teacher  know  what  Harry  should 
be  doing  now,  but  Harry  should  know  what  he  should  be 
doing  and  what  his  teacher  expects  him  to  be  doing  now. 
It  should  not  be  expected  that  young  boys  and  girls  so 
plan  their  work  that  at  the  end  of  the  day  they  will  come 
out  without  a  loss  of  time.    Advanced  pupils  may  do  this, 


The  Daily  Program  73 

but  the  teacher  should  do  the  planning  for  the  little  chil- 
dren at  least.  Our  thought  concisely  stated  is  this: 
Every  teacher  should  make  a  study  program  as  well  as  a 
recitation  program. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  teacher  had  no  regular 
program,  but  had  to  stop  to  think  what  class  he  would 
call  next.  After  studying  for  a  few  seconds  he  might  say, 
"  I  guess  I  will  hear  the  '  A  '  class  read  to-day."  But  that 
day  has  passed  and  now  every  teacher  has  some  kind  of 
recitation  program  and  follows  it  more  or  less  closely,  but 
not  all  teachers  have  a  study  program.  This  part  of  the 
day's  work  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  pupils  and,  in 
the  rural  schools,  the  study  part  of  the  day's  program  is  of 
great  importance.  With  so  many  classes,  the  recitation 
periods  must  necessarily  be  very  short,  and,  if  the  study 
periods  are  not  well  occupied,  the  work  of  the  day  will  be 
indifferently  or  poorly  done.  If  the  rural  teacher  wishes 
to  make  his  school  a  success,  he  must  emphasize  study. 
The  progress  of  the  pupils  depends  largely  upon  the 
amount  of  study  they  do.  The  study  program  simply 
systematizes  this  work  for  them. 

Study  Periods.  —  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
when  the  lessons  should  be  studied.  Following  custom, 
the  study  period  would  immediately  precede  the  recita- 
tion; but  there  are  many  reasons  why  it  should  follow 
the  lesson.    Among  them  are  the  following: 

1.  If  study  is  begun  right  after  the  recitation,  pupils 
will  go  into  the  study  of  the  lesson  with  the  zeal  and  en- 
thusiasm of  the  recitation. 

2.  If  work  is  begun  immediately  after  the  lesson  is 
assigned,  the  children  will  know  just  what  to  do.  They 
will  not  have  to  ask  about  the  lesson. 

3.  The  lesson  to  be  learned  for  the  next  day  will  have 
to  be  more  thoroughly  studied  and  more  carefully  stored 


74  The  Rural  School 

away  in  the  memory  than  the  lesson  that  is  learned  to  be 
recited  at  the  next  period. 

4.  It  is  an  advantage  to  the  pupil  who  has  to  be  out  a 
day.  While  he  will  not  be  prepared  on  to-day's  lessons, 
he  will  have  studied  the  lessons  for  the  day  he  was  absent; 
he  will  get  something  of  to-day's  lessons  from  the  recita- 
tions, and  will  be  able  to  prepare  his  lessons  for  the  next 
day.  In  a  way,  he  has  covered  the  ground  and  no  serious 
break  has  been  caused  by  this  one  day's  absence. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  that  it  is  asking  too  much 
of  those  just  learning  to  study  to  require  them  to  prepare 
their  lessons  the  day  before  they  are  to  recite  them.  Sec- 
ond-grade pupils  should  begin  to  work  in  this  way,  as  they 
will  be  required  to  do  in  the  higher  grades,  but  it  should 
not  be  the  regular  practice. 

When  to  assign  the  lessons  is  a  question  that  should 
receive  consideration.  It  is  not  so  important  whether 
the  lesson  be  assigned  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation 
or  at  the  close.  The  important  thing  is  that  the  teacher 
take  time  to  make  a  clear,  definite  assignment.  If  the 
teacher  cannot  bring  himself  to  the  point  where  he  can 
close  the  recitation  in  time  for  a  careful  assignment  at  the 
end,  he  had  better  take  time  at  the  beginning  of  the  recita- 
tion to  make  the  assignment.  Here  again  the  little  people 
should  be  excepted.  Often  the  teacher  will  need  to  assign 
the  work  for  them  just  before  they  do  it.  In  fact,  in  the 
begiiming,  the  teacher  will  need  to  show  them  what  to  do 
and  how  to  do  it  and  leave  them  to  go  on  with  the  work. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLASSES 

Waves  of  Fatigue.  —  In  making  a  program,  it  is  worth 
while  to  take  into  account  the  waves  of  fatigue.  By 
several  experiments  it  has  been  found  that  the  minds  of 


The  Daily  Program  75 

children  are  brighter  and  better  able  to  accomplish  their 
tasks  during  certain  periods  of  the  day  than  at  others. 
The  best  time  of  the  school  is  from  about  9:15  to  10:30 
or  eleven  o'clock.  Between  eleven  o'clock  and  the  close 
of  the  morning  session  occurs  the  lowest  depression  of 
the  wave.  This  is  relieved  by  the  noon  recess,  but  it  does 
not  reach  as  high  a  point  of  effectiveness  as  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  day,  nor  does  it  reach  as  low  a  depression  in 
the  afternoon  as  in  the  morning  session. 

One  noticeable  thing  which  these  experiments  show  is 
that  after  an  intermission  of  free  play  the  wave  rises.  After 
the  noon  hour  and  after  each  recess,  pupils  are  able  to  do 
better  and  more  accurate  work. 

The  practical  teaching  of  these  experiments  is  that  the 
more  difficult  subjects  should  come  during  the  more 
favorable  times  of  the  day.  Arithmetic,  which  is  a  diffi- 
cult subject  for  the  upper  grades,  should  be  placed  early 
in  the  day.  If  all  of  the  arithmetic  classes  are  postponed 
until  after  the  first  recess,  as  is  often  the  case,  some  of 
them  will  come  during  the  very  poorest  part  of  the 
day.  Reading  is  probably  the  most  difficult  subject  for 
beginners  and  may  come  first  for  them.  Arithmetic 
followed  by  reading,  grammar  followed  by  geography  and 
history  is  probably  a  good  order  of  subjects.  It  has  been 
found  that  some  subjects  may  take  almost  any  place  on 
the  program,  but  others  suffer  if  they  do  not  have  favor- 
able places;  for  example,  reading,  except  in  the  case  of 
beginners,  may  come  almost  any  time  in  the  day  wdthout 
appreciable  loss,  while  such  subjects  as  arithmetic  and 
grammar  lose  much  if  they  are  not  given  good  places  on 
the  day's  schedule. 

Saving  Time.  —  In  a  rural  school  where  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  so  many  classes,  the  saving  of  time  is  a  factor 
in  accompUshing  the  work  outlined  for  the  day.     If  in 


76  The  Rural  School 

the  moving  of  classes,  or  by  combining  two  or  more  classes 
the  teacher  can  save  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  this  time  can 
be  used  for  some  other  recitation.  The  inexperienced 
teacher  sees  the  demand  for  so  many  classes  that  the  time 
is  divided  into  small  bits,  and  thus  no  recitation  is  worth 
much.  Twenty  classes  are  about  as  many  as  one  teacher 
should  undertake  to  handle;  but  conditions  often  seem 
to  force  the  teacher  to  have  a  greater  number  than  this. 
Superintendents  who  have  visited  a  good  many  rural 
schools  and  have  given  this  subject  quite  a  little  study, 
think  that  under  no  circumstances  should  the  number  of 
classes  ever  exceed  twenty-four  or  twenty-six.  In  order 
that  a  teacher  be  able  to  conduct  such  a  number  of  classes 
in  one  day  and  at  the  same  time  benefit  those  who  are  to 
recite,  it  is  necessary  that  not  a  moment  of  time  be  lost; 
and  often  the  teacher  will  need  to  use  every  device  known 
to  the  craft  to  get  the  number  down  to  its  proper  limit  and 
do  justice  to  the  individuals  of  the  school.  A  few  devices 
for  saving  time  and  reducing  the  number  of  classes  are 
suggested  below: 

1.  Two  or  even  three  small  classes  in  reading  may  be 
called  at  the  same  time,  and  those  not  reciting  may  be 
studying  the  next  lesson  at  the  recitation  seat. 

2.  Two  classes  may  be  moved  at  the  same  time,  using 
the  same  set  of  signals  for  both;  one  returning  to  their 
seats  and  the  others  coming  to  the  recitation  bench. 
"  Rise!  Pass!  Be  seated!  "  will  answer  for  signals  for 
both  classes. 

3.  Two  arithmetic  or  two  grammar  classes  may  be 
called  at  the  same  time,  and  one  may  be  given  written 
work  at  the  board  while  the  other  is  given  oral  work. 

4.  The  teacher  can  manage  to  give  a  written  lesson 
each  day  to  some  class,  passing  this  from  class  to  class  so 
that  each  class  will  have  about  one  written  lesson  a  week. 


The  Daily  Program  77 

This  lesson  can  be  so  planned  that  it  will  not  take  much 
time  from  the  other  parts  of  the  program. 

5.  Lessening  the  number  of  classes  is  another  way  of 
saving  time.  Two  classes  may  be  combined,  or  "  al- 
ternated "  as  it  is  called  in  many  courses  of  study. 
For  example,  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  both  use  the 
fourth  reader,  and  thus  may  both  read,  one  year,  the 
fourth  year's  work,  and  the  next  year,  the  fifth  year's  work. 
This  kind  of  combination  can  be  made  in  history,  geog- 
raphy, language  and  sixth-  and  seventh-grade  reading. 
If  there  is  an  agreement  in  the  state  or  county  as  to  when 
certain  work  will  be  alternated,  as,  that  the  fourth  year's 
work  in  reading  will  be  begun  in  the  odd  years,  there  will 
be  no  confiict  when  pupils  go  from  one  school  to  another, 
and  the  plan  will  work  quite  well. 

6.  If  the  number  of  classes  demanded  is  about  to  ex- 
ceed the  maximum,  it  is  better  to  have  some  classes  re- 
cite twice  a  week  and  others  the  other  three  days.  This 
plan  should  be  followed  with  the  advanced  classes  only. 

7.  Some  teachers  arrange  a  program  from  which  certain 
classes  will  be  omitted  each  day  of  the  week.  For  example, 
geography  classes  will  not  recite  on  Mondays,  and  certain 
arithmetic  classes  will  not  recite  on  Tuesdays,  and  so 
forth,  making  four  recitations  a  week  instead  of  five. 

8.  Sometimes  older  pupils  preparing  for  the  county 
examination  desire  to  review  all  the  subjects  in  the  curric- 
ulum and  would  greatly  increase  the  number  of  classes. 
This  can  be  avoided  to  a  great  extent  by  having  them  do 
intensive  study  on  a  few  subjects  and  then  drop  them  and 
take  up  something  else.  For  example,  if  a  student  wants 
to  review  reading,  orthography  and  geography,  let  him 
spend  a  month  each  on  reading  and  orthography  and  two 
months  on  geography.  This  will  be  better  than  for  him 
to  carry  all  three  of  these  subjects  for  four  months, 


78 


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80  The  Rural  School 

making  three  recitations  a  day.  One  recitation  a  day  will 
be  all  that  is  necessary  to  carry  these  three  subjects  for 
the  four  months,  if  these  suggestions  are  followed. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  these  devices  are  for  the 
busy  teacher  with  the  crowded  program.  They  are  not 
better  than  the  regular  way  of  having  each  class  do  its 
own  work  and  recite  every  day  for  five  days  in  a  week. 

On  pages  78  and  79  is  given  a  program  for  a  country 
school  having  seven  grades,  showing  how  the  study  and 
recitation  programs  may  be  combined. 

REFERENCES 

Bagley,  Classroom  Managejnejit  {chapter  4)-  1907. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Colgrove,  Teacher  and  the  School  (chapter  12).  1910. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.25. 

Dinsmore,  Teaching  a  District  School  (pp.  Jf.3-45)- 
1908.    American  Book  Co.,  $1.00. 

Seeley,  Foundations  of  Education  {chapter  5).  Hinds, 
Noble  and  Eldredge,  $1.00. 


Chapter  IX 
THE    RECITATION 

The  recitation  is  the  important  event  in  the  day's 
program.  It  is  for  this  that  teacher  and  pupils  have  pre- 
pared. It  is  the  time  for  which  all  other  exercises  of  the 
day  lend  their  aid.  It  is  then  that  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils  transact  the  business  of  the  school.  The  pupil 
spreads  before  the  teacher  his  store  of  treasures;  the 
teacher  tells  him  which  to  keep  and  sends  him  back  to  the 
storehouse  for  another  supply,  with  instructions  as  to 
what  to  select  and,  perhaps,  a  few  hints  as  to  how  to  ex- 
hibit his  store. 

The  Three  Functions  of  the  Recitation.  —  The  English- 
man places  little  stress  upon  the  daily  recitation,  but 
emphasizes  the  examination  as  the  opportunity  for  test- 
ing. The  same  is  true  of  the  German  teacher.  But  we 
Americans  think  of  the  recitation  as  a  place  of  testing, 
teaching,  and  training.  Some  teachers  who  have  studied 
the  subject  little  think  the  recitation  is  complete  when 
they  have  tested  the  class  and  found  out  what  the  pupils 
know.  This  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  opportunity  of  the 
recitation.  It  might  be  not  a  third  of  what  ought  to  be 
done.  Again,  some  will  teach,  teach,  teach,  or  perhaps 
it  better  be  said,  talk,  talk,  talk,  and  never  stop  to  find 
out  whether  they  have  taught  anything  or  not.  Talking 
is  not  necessarily  teaching;  it  may  be  far  from  it.  Most 
teachers  talk  too  much.     The  teacher  should  talk  less 

81 


82  The  Rural  School 

and  get  his  pupils  to  talk  more.  How  does  a  teacher  know 
what  to  say  until  he  has  found  out  what  the  pupil  knows? 
Whatever  the  pupil  knows  about  the  lesson  he  should  be 
allowed  to  tell.  He  may  not  be  able  to  express  himself 
in  the  best  of  language,  but  with  some  criticisms  from 
pupils  and  a  few  corrections  and  suggestions  from  the 
teacher  and  with  another  effort  he  will  improve.  It  is  by 
drill,  —  going  over  again,  correcting,  improving,  repeating 
—  that  the  training,  which  makes  usable  the  knowledge 
obtained,  shall  be  secured. 

Securing  Attention.  —  Before  the  recitation  can  pro- 
ceed with  profit,  the  teacher  must  have  the  attention  of 
the  class.  The  practical  question  for  the  teacher  to  ask 
at  this  point  is,  "  How  can  I  secure  and  hold  attention?  " 
This  is  not  an  easy  question  to  answer,  for  there  are  so 
many  things  that  may  come  in  to  distract  attention,  or, 
it  may  be,  there  is  so  little  to  attract  attention.  In  the 
first  place,  everything  that  will  distract  attention  from  the 
lesson  should  be  removed,  if  possible.  The  desks  should 
be  cleared  of  all  books,  except  those  that  may  be  for  use 
in  the  recitation.  If  none  are  to  be  used,  then  the  desks 
should  be  perfectly  clear.  All  paper,  pencils,  knives, 
marbles,  etc.,  should  be  out  of  sight  and,  perhaps,  out  of 
reach,  and  the  class  in  a  good  position  near  the  teacher. 
In  the  second  place,  there  must  be  something  to  which  to 
attend.  The  teacher  may  now  be  thought  of  as  a  caterer 
who  is  to  prepare  the  banquet.  If  this  meal  is  so  pre- 
pared and  served  as  to  tempt  the  tastes  and  appetites 
of  those  who  are  to  eat,  there  will  be  little  trouble  about 
getting  them  to  attend.  So  if  the  lesson  is  properly 
assigned,  if  the  pupils  are  well  prepared  for  the  lesson, 
there  will  be  little  trouble  in  getting  attention. 

Arousing  Pupil's  Interest.  —  But  the  following  of  the 
suggestions  given  above  will  not  always  secure  attention, 


The  Recitation  83 

for  some  minds  will  wander,  because  they  are  more  in- 
terested in  something  else.  Interest  is  catching.  Let  the 
teacher  become  intensely  interested  in  the  subject  and  in 
the  boys  and  girls  of  the  class.  This  will  exert  a  great  in- 
fluence in  getting  the  pupils  interested.  Interest  begets 
attention,  so  when  you  have  your  class  interested,  you 
have  them  attending.  It  is  equally  true  that  attention 
begets  interest,  so  that  required  attention  is  not  out  of 
place,  but  it  in  turn  will  lead  to  interest  in  the  subject 
at  hand. 

These  suggestions  do  not  cover  all  the  ground,  nor  sug- 
gest a  remedy  for  all  the  cases  that  may  arise.  As  has 
been  said  before,  the  conditions  must  be  met  and  mastered. 
Inattention  may  be  caused  by  one  of  many  things.  It 
may  be  the  monotony  of  the  teacher's  voice,  the  lack  of 
variety,  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  room,  lack 
of  animation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  etc.  But,  what- 
ever it  is,  it  must  be  overcome  and  attention  must  be 
secured;  for  we  are  not  teaching  unless  the  pupils  are 
learning,  and  pupils  are  not  learning  unless  they  are  giving 
attention. 

The  Recitation  for  the  Whole  Class.  —  The  whole  class 
should  be  giving  attention,  for  the  recitation  is  for 
the  whole  class.  In  general,  the  oral  recitation  is  better 
than  the  written,  because,  when  the  pupil  recites  aloud, 
the  class  gets  the  benefit  of  his  recitation.  The  pupils 
can  then  compare  their  information  with  that  of  the  re- 
citing pupil.  If  his  knowledge  is  approved  by  the  teacher, 
the  rest  of  the  class  can  correct  theirs  by  this  standard; 
on  the  other  hand,  if  the  pupil's  recitation  is  disapproved 
by  the  teacher,  the  other  members  of  the  class  may  offer 
their  information  for  the  teacher's  criticism.  It  is  some- 
times the  custom  for  teachers  to  have  one  member  of  the 
class  explain  a  problem  while  the  other  members  are  still 


84  The  Rural  School 

working  their  examples  at  the  board.  The  objection  to 
this  practice  is  that  the  teacher  and  the  one  member  are 
all  that  get  the  benefit  of  this  explanation,  while  it  should 
be  for  the  whole  class. 

PURPOSES   OF  THE  RECITATION 

Superintendents  who  have  visited  extensively  in  our 
rural  schools  tell  us  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  purposeless 
teaching.  The  young  teacher,  who  has  not  studied  the 
subject,  hears  recitations  because  that  is  the  way  it  was 
done  when  he  went  to  school.  It  is  not  because  he  has 
any  special  end  in  view,  and  generally  no  end  is  reached. 
In  this  chapter  the  purposes  of  the  recitation  will  be 
studied  to  see  if  there  is  any  reason  for  conducting  such 
an  exercise. 

I.  To  Find  What  the  Pupil  Knows.  —  In  his  book  on 
*'  Method  in  Education,"  Mr.  Roark  gives  as  the  first 
purpose  of  the  recitation  the  following:  "  To  find  what 
the  child  knows  and  how  he  knows  it."  This  seems  to  be 
important,  for  it  is  not  enough  that  a  child  can  say  in 
parrot  fashion  the  words  of  the  lesson.  He  may  have 
a  good  verbal  memory  and  may  have  memorized  the 
words  of  the  book  and  yet  know  comparatively^  nothing 
of  the  thought.  It  may  be  that  it  is  not  his  own  work, 
perhaps  some  one  has  helped  him  or  has  worked  his 
problem  for  him,  and  he  does  not  understand  it  at  all. 
If  it  is  written  work,  his  seatmate  may  have  earned  the 
credit  that  is  due.  He  may  be  visual-minded  and  remem- 
ber the  words  as  they  appear  on  the  page,  and  when  the 
picture  is  gone  all  that  he  knows  about  the  subject  fades 
also.  Thus  it  is  important  not  only  that  the  teacher  find 
out  what  a  pupil  knows  but  also  how  he  has  learned  it 
and  how  he  holds  it  in  mind. 


The  Recitation  85 

2.  To  Find  What  the  Pupil  does  not  Know.  —  The 

second  purpose  that  Mr.  Roark  gives  is  "  To  find  out 
what  he  does  not  know  and  why  he  does  not  know  it." 
The  resourceful  pupil  will  find  numerous  reasons  why  he 
does  not  know  his  lesson,  but  the  teacher  is  interested  in 
the  valid  ones  only.  It  may  be  asked,  Was  the  pupil  pre- 
pared for  this  lesson?  Or  it  may  be  the  lesson  was  too 
long  or  perhaps  too  short.  Did  the  pupil  try  to  get  the 
lesson,  or  were  conditions  of  the  room  such  that  he  could 
not  study?  Perhaps  conditions  at  his  home  are  not  favor- 
able to  study  and  school  work.  He  may  be  motor-minded 
and  unless  he  may  move  his  lips  while  studying  or  in 
some  way  accompany  study  with  muscular  activity  he 
cannot  learn.  It  may  be  that  he  is  auditory-minded  and 
learns  those  things  he  hears  better  than  those  things  he 
reads.  All  these  things  interest  the  teacher  and  he  must 
consider  them  in  directing  the  work  of  the  pupil.  It  is 
not  mere  curiosity  that  should  lead  the  teacher  to  this  in- 
quiry, but  a  purpose  and  a  determination  to  remove  the 
obstacle  and  correct  the  evils. 

3.  To  Correct  Pupils'  Mistakes.  —  This  object  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  for  few  pupils  get  a  correct  idea  of  a 
subject  from  their  owm  study,  so  that  they  are  able  to 
express  it  clearly.  The  teacher  must  correct  these  ideas 
or  have  other  pupils  do  it. 

4.  To  Supplement  Pupils'  Knowledge.  —  The  teacher 
should  know  more  of  a  subject  than  is  contained  in  the 
textbook,  and  when  the  class  have  exhausted  their  re- 
sources, the  teacher  may  come  in  with  additional  knowl- 
edge and  information  that  makes  the  thought  clearer  and 
enlivens  the  recitation. 

5.  To  Lead  Pupils  to  Correct  Expression.  —  As  a  rule 
pupils  should  be  required  to  recite  in  complete  sentences. 
A  good  plan  to  follow  is  to  require  the  pupil  to  stand  and 


86  The  Rural  School 

to  recite  in  full  statements.  Do  not  accept  a  word  or 
phrase  for  the  full  statement  of  the  fact.  There  may  be 
one  exception  to  this  rule,  viz.,  in  number  work.  When 
the  teacher  is  working  for  rapid  results  he  camiot  wait 
for  full  statements.  The  teacher  should  keep  a  watchful 
eye  on  the  English  used  in  the  recitation.  Give  pupils  the 
idea  early  in  their  school  life  that  their  knowledge  is  for 
use,  the  English  in  the  arithmetic  class,  the  arithmetic  in 
the  geography  class,  etc.  As  far  as  possible,  good  pure 
English  should  be  demanded  in  all  classes.  Mr.  Mc- 
Keever  in  his  book,  "  The  Psychologic  Method  in  Teach- 
ing," extends  the  idea  of  expression  beyond  that  of  mere 
verbal  utterances.  The  sawing  of  a  board,  the  painting 
of  a  picture,  the  making  of  a  dress  or  the  baking  of  a  loaf 
of  bread  are  all  means  of  expression,  and  are  valuable  in 
the  markets  of  the  world.  The  newer  idea  of  education 
would  have  these  recognized  and  cultivated  as  well  as 
the  use  of  good  English. 

6.  To  Prepare  for  the  Next  Lesson.  —  The  recitation  is 
a  time  in  which  to  prepare  for  the  next  recitation,  or 
rather  to  prepare  for  the  study  period.  There  is  the  prep- 
aration of  the  ground  before  the  planting  of  the  seed. 
To  see  that  the  pupils  are  prepared  for  the  next  lesson  is 
one  object  of  the  recitation  which  the  teacher  should  be 
careful  not  to  forget. 

7.  To  Study  Pupils.  —  There  is  no  place  that  the 
teacher  comes  nearer  to  his  pupils  than  in  the  recitation, 
and  thus  it  becomes  a  place  to  study  each  pu})il,  —  to  learn 
his  likes  and  dislikes,  his  peculiarities  and  inclinations. 
It  furnishes  an  opportunity,  also,  to  develop  character. 
Honesty  of  purpose,  upright  dealing,  true  manliness,  and 
many  of  the  other  virtues  may  be  cultivated  in  the  recita- 
tion by  the  teacher  who  is  a  lover  of  truth  and  has  high 
ideals  of  living  and  acting.     Each  subject  has  its  moral 


The  Recitation  87 

lesson.     History  has  its  heroes,  arithmetic  its  exactness 
and  precision,  and  Hterature  its  world  of  truths. 

Conclusion.  —  Each  author  who  treats  of  school 
management  gives  a  list  of  six  or  eight  purposes  of  the 
iccitation  more  or  less  similar  to  the  above,  but  the  young 
teacher  just  beginning  the  work  of  teaching  need  not 
worry  if  he  cannot  keep  in  mind  all  these  purposes  for 
each  recitation.  He  needs  to  know  them  and  must 
seek  to  accomplish  them.  But  he  will  realize  that  there 
is  more  to  do  in  the  recitation  than  simply  to  "  hear  the 
lesson."  This  he  should  do,  but  he  should  also  seek  to 
make  it  a  place  of  intense  interest  in  the  lesson  at  hand, 
a  place  of  pleasure,  not  a  place  of  torment.  If  he  will  cor- 
rect the  pupils'  mistakes  in  a  kindly  spirit  and  lead  them 
back  into  the  right  road;  if  he  will  connect  the  work  of 
the  schoolroom  so  closely  with  the  homes  and  their  life, 
that  each  pupil  will  feel  that  he  is  getting  something  worth 
while  and  something  he  can  use;  if  he  will  somehow  and 
at  sometime  inspire  his  pupils  with  an  intense  desire  to 
know  more  and  be  more,  the  professional  fraternity  Avill 
forgive  his  pedagogical  sins,  though  he  should  fail  to  keep 
all  the  rules  of  the  recitation.  He  must  never  forget,  how- 
ever, that  the  recitation  is  a  place  for  the  teacher  to  teach 
and  the  learner  to  learn.  These  things  can  be  accomplished 
only  h  Y  the  teacher  who  knows  and  who  grows,  who  has  a 
purpose  in  life  and  a  laudable  ambition  to  succeed,  even 
though  it  takes  work,  work,  work  to  accomplish  this  end. 

MECHANICS   OF  THE  RECITATION 

In  order  to  attain  the  high  ideals  set  forth  in  the  pur- 
poses of  the  recitation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  everj' 
device,  every  method  that  will  assist.  There  are  certain 
arrangements  which  may  be  made,  certain   regulations 


88  The  Rural  School 

to  be  observed,  that  will  greatly  aid  in  the  successful 
progress  of  the  recitation. 

Order  of  the  Room.  —  Before  beginning  the  recitation 
the  teacher  should  see  that  the  room  is  in  order,  i.  e., 
see  that  all  questions  have  been  answered  that  should  be 
answered  at  this  time;  that  each  one  is  at  his  task  for  this 
period;  that  the  room  is  properly  heated  and  ventilated; 
and  that  such  other  mechanical  duties  as  may  call  the 
attention  of  the  teacher  or  the  class  shall  have  been  per- 
formed. 

Movement  of  Classes. —  There  should  be  a  definite 
understanding  as  to  how  a  class  shall  move,  i.  e.,  whether 
pupils  shall  pass  straight  forward  from  where  they  stand 
after  rising  from  their  seats,  or  whether  they  shall  all 
move  to  the  back  of  the  room  and  come  up  one  of  the  side 
aisles;  what  shall  be  each  one's  place  in  the  class,  or 
whether  the  class  shall  recite  from  their  regular  seats. 
In  a  rural  school,  unless  there  are  single  seats  and  the 
pupils  are  seated  according  to  grades,  the  class  should 
move  to  a  recitation  seat  near  the  teacher.  Close  range 
adds  efficiency  in  the  recitation.  In  this  case  it  is  quite 
important  to  have  signals  for  the  movement  of  the  classes. 
The  following  are  perhaps  as  good  as  any:  "  Third  reader 
class,  stand!  pass!  be  seated!  "  or  "  Stand!  pass  to  board! 
erase!  "  Some  accomplish  this  by  counting,  "  One,  two, 
three,"  etc.  Some  use  a  bell,  but  the  noise  is  distracting. 
However,  the  plan  is  not  so  important  as  the  way  it  is 
used.  The  common  fault  is  to  give  the  signals  so  fast 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  pupils  to  obey  them.  This 
breeds  disorder  and  thwarts  the  very  purpose  for  which 
the  signals  are  used.  Some  will  be  coming  to  the  class 
while  others  are  just  rising  or  perhaps  looking  for  a  book 
in  the  desk;  some  are  being  seated  while  others  are  com- 
ing to  the  recitation  seat,  and  thus  all  order,  the  very 


The  Recitation  89 

thing  for  which  the  teacher  is  striving,  is  lost.  Give  the 
first  signal  and  allow  plenty  of  time  for  it  to  be  obeyed 
before  giving  the  second.  See  also  that  pupils  are  at- 
tempting to  comply  with  the  signals.  In  other  words, 
give  plenty  of  time  in  which  to  execute  the  requirements 
of  the  signals  and  require  prompt  obedience.  A  little 
persistency  along  this  line  will  soon  bring  good  order  in 
the  movement  of  the  classes.  These  suggestions  will 
apply  equally  well  to  dismissal  at  noon  and  recess. 

The  larger  the  number  of  pupils,  the  more  need  there 
will  be  of  regulations  in  handling  them,  and  vice  versa. 
As  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  the  Daily  Program,  if  the 
school  is  large  and  time  is  precious,  one  class  may  come 
to  the  recitation  while  the  pupils  who  have  just  recited 
are  passing  to  their  seats.  This  gives  pupils  an  opportunity 
for  some  foolishness  while  meeting  in  the  aisles;  but, 
when  the  teacher  has  good  control  of  the  school,  he  can 
use  this  order  of  passing. 

Position  of  Teacher.  —  It  is  quite  important  that  the 
teacher  assume  a  dignified  and  graceful  position  before 
the  class.  No  slouchy  or  uncouth  posture  is  at  all  ex- 
cusable. The  teacher  may  sit  or  stand  as  the  occasion 
seems  to  demand.  Inquiry  of  a  number  of  Normal  stu- 
dents seems  to  indicate  their  preference  for  the  standing 
attitude.  When  the  teacher  is  on  his  feet,  he  can  see 
better  what  is  going  on  in  the  room.  It  is  a  good  plan  for 
the  teacher  to  move  around  the  room  at  times  to  see  what 
otherwise  would  be  hidden  from  his  sight. 

Position  of  Pupil.  —  Some  of  what  has  been  said  about 
the  teacher  is  applicable  to  the  pupil,  —  at  least,  that  he 
is  more  alive  when  on  his  feet.  This  also  may  be  empha- 
sized, viz.,  that  as  a  rule  he  should  hold  his  book  in  his 
left  hand;  that  almost  without  exception  the  pupil 
should  stand  while  reciting,  for  the  other  members  of 


90  The  Rural  School 

the  class  can  hear  better,  and  he  needs  to  think  while 
standing.  A  graceful  position,  without  the  aid  of  seats 
or  other  support  is  hard  for  the  teacher  to  secure  from 
all  pupils.  They  have  not  been  "  trained  from  their 
youth  up,"  and  have  contracted  habits  of  careless  pos- 
ture; or  it  may  be  that  bashfulness  is  the  cause  of  an 
awkward  position.  The  bashful  child  should  not  be 
treated  the  same  as  the  careless  child;  he  should  be 
shown  and  encouraged,  but  not  scolded.  The  teacher's 
opportunity  for  this  kind  of  training  is  with  the  little 
folks  before  they  have  become  self  conscious  and  bashful. 
The  teacher  of  little  children  has  an  opportunity  of 
training  them  in  graceful  habits,  that  should  not  be 
overlooked. 

No  Textbook  in  the  Hands  of  the  Instructor.  —  While 
there  may  be  times  and  conditions  which  will  justify  the 
teacher  in  having  a  textbook  in  hand,  yet  there  are  so 
many  other  advantages  and  arguments  for  not  having  the 
textbook  in  hand  that  it  is  a  good  rule  to  adopt.  Consult 
your  own  experience  as  a  pupil  and  see  which  teacher  did 
the  better  work,  the  one  that  was  tied  to  the  book  or  the 
one  that  was  free  from  it.  Let  the  teacher  test  him- 
self to  see  which  lesson  he  teaches  the  better,  —  the  one 
in  which  he  is  confined  to  the  book,  or  the  one  in  which 
he  knows  the  subject  and  does  not  need  the  book. 

Assignment.  —  On  the  part  of  the  teacher  there  should 
be  careful  preparation  for  the  assignment  of  the  lesson. 
Whether  the  lesson  shall  be  the  next  five  pages  or  the  next 
page,  depends  upon  several  things.  It  may  ])e  that  the 
next  lesson  in  arithmetic  should  be  twenty  examples,  or 
it  may  be  that  it  ought  to  be  three,  depending  very  much 
upon  the  class,  upon  the  problems  and  other  conditions, 
such  as  weather,  other  lessons,  social  attractions,  etc. 
These   conditions  the  teacher  should   know   before  at- 


The  Recitation  91 

tempting  to  assign  the  lesson.  In  other  words,  the  teacher 
should  know  that  the  class  is  ready  for  the  lesson  and 
that  there  will  be  opportunity  to  study  it.  If  the  pupils 
are  not  ready  to  proceed,  they  should  review  until  such 
time  that  they  will  be  able  to  proceed  step  by  step  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  This  advice  is  not  for  the 
teacher  who  always  wants  to  turn  the  classes  back  to  the 
first  of  the  book  at  the  beginning  of  every  term.  This  is 
generally  done  by  teachers  who  have  a  false  conceit  that 
they  are  going  to  do  more  thorough  work  than  has  been 
done  by  the  previous  teacher. 

The  assignment  should  be  clear  and  definite.  Pupils 
should  not  be  allowed  to  go  away  from  the  class  not  know- 
ing just  what  preparation  is  needed  for  the  next  recitation. 
They  should  know  it  so  clearly  that  they  will  know  when 
they  have  their  lessons  learned. 

Too  long  a  lesson  ties  the  hands  of  the  teacher;  too 
short  a  lesson  leads  to  idleness  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
The  following  incident  from  a  superintendent  of  many 
years'  experience  well  illustrates  the  latter  point.  A 
teacher  had  assigned  a  class  20  words  for  their  next  spell- 
ing lesson.  The  superintendent  asked  if  he  might  take  the 
book.  This  being  granted,  he  pronounced  the  20  words 
to  the  class  and  only  one  Avas  misspelled.  Of  course  the 
superintendent  plainly  demonstrated  to  that  teacher  that 
she  had  assigned  no  work  for  the  class  commensurate 
with  their  ability.  They  would  either  not  study,  or  they 
would  go  over  something  which  they  already  knew  and 
dawdle  aAvay  their  time,  —  in  either  case  acquiring  waste- 
ful habits. 

In  the  assignment,  the  teacher  links  the  old  lesson  with 
the  new,  and  explains  such  parts  as  the  class  will  not  be 
able  to  get  for  themselves.  Some  days,  when  the  new 
lesson  consists  of  almost  wholly  new  material,  the  teacher 


92  The  Rural  School 

will  need  to  take  most  of  the  period  in  assigning  the  new 
lesson.  It  may  be  well  to  study  the  lesson  over  with 
the  pupils.  In  a  beginning  reading  class,  the  new  words 
will  need  development;  in  a  geography  class  the  unusual 
words  will  need  to  be  pronounced,  and  perhaps,  to  be  ex- 
plained. A  class  in  history  may  not  be  able  to  see  the 
connection  between  what  they  have  already  had  and 
that  which  is  to  follow.  Every  class  should  be  so  grounded 
in  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  that  by  their  own  efforts 
they  can  prepare  for  a  creditable  recitation. 

When  once  the  lesson  is  assigned,  both  teacher  and 
pupils  should  be  prepared  on  it  for  the  next  day.  The 
pupil  should  be  held  to  strict  account  for  just  what  has 
been  assigned,  and  should  have  an  opportunity  to  tell 
what  he  has  learned  about  it.  The  teacher  is  not  to  recite 
the  lesson  now  but  the  pupil.  Here  is  where  a  good  many 
teachers  fail;  they  either  recite  the  lesson  for  the  pupil 
or  accept  a  poorly  learned  lesson  as  one  well  learned. 
Accept  no  recitation  as  perfect  that  is  not  a  clear,  accurate 
expression  of  the  thought  of  the  lesson.  Clear,  accurate 
thinking  is  an  object  worth  attaining. 


Chapter   X 

THE   RECITATION  (Continued) 
DEVICES  OF  THE  RECITATION 

It  was  said  in  the  previous  chapter  that  interest  begets 
attention.  Now  it  may  be  profitable  to  know  some  ways 
of  creating  interest.  Here,  as  in  all  school  work,  the 
teacher  must  use  his  own  individuality  —  be  himself. 
A  teacher's  personality  will  do  more  to  arouse  and  hold 
interest  than  any  or  all  the  devices  or  rules  that  may  be 
given  in  this  book.  Yet,  if  the  teacher  can  adapt  some  of 
these  devices,  and  make  them  his  own,  they  will  assist 
in  making  his  school  more  interesting.  Only  a  few  can  be 
suggested;  he  must  find  some  more  of  his  own  contriving. 

1.  The  Teacher  Being  Taught.  —  The  teacher  may 
assume  the  position  of  not  knowing  and  of  being  taught 
by  the  pupils. 

2.  Pupils  the  Questioners.  —  Notice  that  pupils  are 
to  give  questions  such  as  the  teacher  would  ask  on  the 
lesson.  Pupils  will  have  questions  about  some  phases 
of  almost  every  lesson,  but  to  ask  the  questions  as  the 
teacher  would  ask  them  is  another  thing. 

3.  Contests.  —  Debates  and  contests  have  been  found 
interesting  in  a  class  in  history.  Debate  some  such 
question  as,  "  Which  did  more  for  his  country,  Lincoln 
or  Washington?  "  Sometimes  a  contest  in  geography, 
spelling  or  arithmetic  will  arouse  great  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject under  discussion. 

93 


94  The  Rural  School 

4.  Variety.  —  The  three  points  above  mentioned  might 
be  summed  up  by  saying,  —  have  variety  and  spice  in 
your  recitations.  Spring  a  pleasing  surprise  upon  the 
class.  Tell  an  interesting  story  that  will  illustrate  some 
point  in  the  lesson;  a  good  laugh  is  healthy  sauce  for  a 
class  of  3^oung  people.  The  story  should  not  be  for  the 
story  alone,  but  for  the  sake  of  the  recitation  and  should 
illustrate  some  point  in  the  lesson. 

METHODS   OF  THE  RECITATION 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  a  lesson  may  be  con- 
ducted. Following  are  a  few  suggestions  in  regard  to 
classroom  methods  which  may  be  found  helpful. 

I.  Oral  and  Written.  —  In  every  school  there  should 
be  both  oral  and  written  recitations.  Of  the  two,  the 
oral  work  calls  for  the  higher  type  of  thinking.  The  pupil 
must  be  alert,  ready,  and  must  frame  his  composition  on 
the  spur  of  the  moment.  He  does  not  have  time  to  go 
back  and  correct,  nor  to  study  long  as  to  how  he  will  form 
his  sentences.  The  oral  recitation  tends  more  to  cultivate 
extemporaneous  speaking,  rather  than  careful  and  exact 
expression  of  thought. 

The  written  recitation  gives  opportunity  for  more 
accurate  statements  and  better  language  in  which  to  ex- 
press one's  thoughts.  A  pupil  needs  practice  in  l)oth. 
Many  of  our  rural  teachers  are  inclined  to  neglect  written 
work,  while  city  teachers  often  overdo  it.  Many  boys  and 
girls  from  the  rural  schools  come  to  the  County  Diploma 
or  Teachers'  examination  without  aliility  to  express  them- 
selves clearly  on  paper  or  to  answer  a  question  completely. 
This  comes  from  two  evils,  viz.,  the  want  of  written  work 
in  school,  and  the  lack  of  the  habitual  r(Hiuirem(nit  of  ac- 
curacy —  the  need  of  giving  the  answer  in  full,  complete 


The  Recitation  95 

sentences.  Too  many  teachers  are  willing  to  accept  a 
word  or  two  instead  of  a  complete  statement  of  the 
truth  required. 

2.  Object  Method.  —  In  order  to  be  successful,  the 
teacher  of  beginners  must  know  and  use  the  object  method. 
The  order  in  teaching  is  the  object,  the  thought,  the 
word.  When  teaching  a  new  subject,  the  object  itself 
furnishes  the  best  illustration,  next  the  picture  of  the 
object,  then  a  drawing  and  lastly  a  description.  This  is 
but  saying  in  other  words  that  the  concrete  should  pre- 
cede the  abstract.  The  child  probably  does  very  much 
of  its  first  thinking  by  the  use  of  object  symbols. 

The  importance  of  having  objects  for  use  in  our  teach- 
ing is  often  illustrated  in  our  own  experiences.  The 
writer  might  give  a  description  of  Pike's  Peak,  how  it 
looks  like  a  huge  pile  of  rock  some  builder  has  unloaded 
for  a  mammoth  building.  He  might  go  on  into  the  details 
of  the  description,  yet  how  surprised  the  reader  would  be 
when  he  sees  it  with  his  own  eyes.  How  different  it  will 
appear  from  what  he  imagined.  Notice  the  use  of  this 
method  in  the  chapters  on  primary  methods. 

3.  The  Topic  Method.  —  It  is  a  good  practice  to  have 
pupils  recite  by  topics.  The  teacher  announces  the  topic 
and  the  pupil  arises  and  discusses  the  subject  to  the 
best  of  his  ability  without  any  other  suggestion  from  the 
teacher  or  pupils.  It  requires  independence  and  a  better 
grasp  of  the  subject  than  when  required  to  answer  a  few 
questions  on  the  topic.  This  method  can  be  used  to 
advantage  in  history,  physiology,  civil  government,  geog- 
raphy, etc. 

4.  The  Lecture  Method.  —  This  method  has  little 
place  in  the  rural  schools.  It  may  be  used  in  a  college  or 
university  where  the  professor  has  given  a  subject  special 
study  and  has  original  material  not  in  the  textbook.    This 


96  The  Rural  School 

he  gives  to  his  pupils  in  the  form  of  lectures  and  requires 
it  back  in  the  test  or  examination.  From  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  our  rural  teachers  must  learn  to  use  the  text- 
books and  be  content  to  use  the  methods  that  may  be 
applied  to  them. 

5.  The  Question  Method.  —  The  teacher  can  afford  to 
make  of  himself  a  big  question  mark  and  learn  how  and 
where  to  place  it.  One  of  the  great  teachers  of  the  world 
used  this  method  so  exclusively  and  so  effectively  that  he 
gave  his  name  to  a  method  of  questioning.  The  teacher 
can  covet  no  more  desirable  art  than  to  be  a  good  ques- 
tioner. There  is,  perhaps,  no  better  way  of  teaching  than 
by  asking  questions  in  a  proper  manner. 

There  are  a  few  directions  a  student  may  learn  that 
will  be  of  great  advantage  to  him  in  mastering  the  art 
of  framing  questions.  In  the  first  place,  the  teacher  should 
be  original  in  the  question  asked,  and  not  tied  to  the  ques- 
tions of  the  book.  These  questions  may  be  a  guide  to  him  in 
arranging  others,  but  he  will  never  be  a  good  questioner 
until  he  frees  himself  from  dependence  upon  the  textbook. 

In  the  next  place,  all  questions  should  be  clear  and 
definite.  They  should  call  for  something,  and  that  thing 
should  not  be  one  of  two  or  more  things.  For  example, 
if  the  teacher  asks  what  lake  is  on  the  boundary  of  New 
York  State,  he  has  not  made  himself  clear,  for  there  are 
several  lakes  that  will  answer  these  conditions.  Again, 
if  he  say,  "  Give  me  the  definition  of  a  fraction,"  he  sug- 
gests that  there  is  only  one  kind  of  fraction,  whereas  there 
are  several  kinds  and  he  has  not  signified  which  one  he 
wants  defined. 

Then  again,  the  questioner  should  endeavor  to  make 
his  questions  follow  each  other  in  logical  order.  The  skill- 
ful questioner  can  begin  where  the  pupil  is  and  by  a  scries 
of  questions  arranged  consecutively  and  in  logical  order, 


The  Recitation  97 

lead  the  pupil  step  by  step  from  the  known  to  the  related 
unknown.  This  was  Socrates'  method.  If  the  pupil 
thought  that  he  knew  more  than  he  really  did,  by  ques- 
tions Socrates  would  lead  him  to  see  how  very  little  he 
knew  and  how  insignificant  was  his  knowledge.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  his  pupil  lacked  self-confidence,  he  would 
lead  him  from  one  step  to  another  to  realize  that  he  knew 
a  great  deal. 

Leading  a  student  step  by  step  to  a  clear  and  definite 
understanding  of  a  subject  by  means  of  a  series  of  logical 
questions  is  called  the  Socratic  method  of  teaching. 

When  the  teacher  wants  to  find  out  what  his  pupils 
know  about  a  certain  subject  he  can  best  do  this  by  a 
series  of  questions  called  testing  questions.  Here  there 
is  no  place  whatever  for  suggestive  questions.  Any  sug- 
gestion of  the  answer  defeats  the  very  object  for  which  the 
questions  were  asked.  These  should  not  be  the  questions 
that  can  be  answered  by  yes  or  no;  they  should  call  for 
definite  information  gotten  from  textbook  or  elsewhere. 
When  the  instructor  desires  to  teach  certain  truths  or  to 
lead  pupils  to  see  certain  relations,  often  he  can  best 
accomplish  this  by  a  series  of  questions  called  instruc- 
tional questions. 

When  it  is  a  choice  between  telling,  or  asking  a  sug- 
gestive question,  use  the  question.  It  is  better  to  ques- 
tion a  child  into  seeing  a  thing  than  it  is  to  tell  it  to  him. 

In  teaching,  there  is  not  much  use  for  the  direct  or 
categorical  question.  We  may  ask  a  pupil  whether  he  has 
studied  his  lesson  or  not,  and  he  may  answer  by  yes  or 
no;  but  to  ask,  "  Is  Kansas  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Nebraska?  "  is  hardly  worth  the  effort  that  it  takes  to 
ask  it. 

We  are  often  warned  against  the  use  of  elliptical  ques- 
tions, but  it  seems  that  we  may  use  them  sometimes  for 


98  The  Rural  School 

variety.  Questions  are  used  to  arouse  pupils  to  earnest 
thinking  and  good  expression,  and  any  form  of  question 
that  will  do  this,  may  be  used  with  profit. 

As  a  rule  the  question  should  be  directed  to  the  whole 
class,  and  then  some  one  called  on  to  answer  it.  If  this 
plan  is  used  to  its  fullest  extent,  every  one  in  the  class  will 
be  held  responsible  for  the  answer,  and  each  one  will  be 
formulating  the  reply.  If  the  individual  who  is  called 
upon  to  answer  the  question  has  not  a  clear  idea  of  the 
subject,  the  teacher  may  need  to  question  him  to  lead 
him  into  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  matter. 

INDUCTION  AND  DEDUCTION 

What  we  have  given  above  under  the  caption  of  methods 
may  be  objected  to  as  not  worthy  the  name  methods, 
being  simply  devices.  However  that  may  be,  all  will 
agree  that  there  is  an  inductive  and  a  deductive  method 
of  teaching  and  that  they  should  be  understood  by  all 
progressive  teachers. 

Induction.  — When  the  mind  proceeds  from  the  par- 
ticular to  the  general,  it  is  called  inductive  reasoning  or 
inductive  thinking.  This  is  best  illustrated  by  some  of  the 
inductive  sciences,  as  botany  for  example.  Botanists 
have  studied  the  life,  habits,  and  structure  of  plants  until 
they  can  tell  us  many  interesting  and  useful  facts  or 
laws  about  them.  They  have  learned  from  observation 
that  if  a  plant  has  seed  it  has  had  a  flower  of  some  kind 
and  belongs  to  the  great  series  of  flowering  plants.  If 
the  leaves  are  parallel  veined,  we  may  look  for  certain 
other  characteristics. 

Again,  we  observe  that  this  neighbor  has  died.  We 
notice  that  old  people  become  foeliU^  and  die,  etc.;  and 
finally  we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  all  men  will  die, 


The  Recitation  99 

that  "  Man  is  mortal."     This  last  statement  is  what  is 
called  the  "  general  or  universal." 

Deduction.  —  We  reached  the  above  conclusion  by  a 
series  of  observations,  and  we  call  this  process  induction. 
But,  if  we  should  begin  with  this  conclusion,  "  Man  is 
mortal  "  and  reason  from  it  in  the  following  way,  e.  g., 
"  Man  is  mortal,  Jolm  is  a  man,  therefore  John  will  die," 
—  we  are  reasoning  deductively.  We  are  proceeding 
from  the  general  to  the  particular. 

Induction,  then  Deduction.  —  Both  these  methods  have 
their  place  in  teaching,  but  most  educators  think  that 
induction  is  the  more  natural  for  the  young  student.  The 
faculty  of  observation  is  active  in  early  life,  for  the  child 
is  seeing,  handling,  tasting  and  hearing  at  every  oppor- 
tunity, and  drawing  his  childish  conclusions,  some  true 
and  some  not.  He  makes  his  deductions  also,  e.  g.-,  he 
thinks,  "  I  can  push  a  chair;  this  is  a  chair;  therefore 
I  can  push  this." 

It  is  generally  believed  that,  if  a  subject  can  be  pre- 
sented inductively,  this  is  the  better  method  to  follow. 
So,  instead  of  learning  the  rules  in  arithmetic  first  and 
then  working  the  examples  and  problems  by  the  rule, 
examples  and  proljlems  are  worked,  illustrations  are 
given  and  finally  the  rule  is  formulated.  In  the  study  of 
the  sciences  the  laboratory  method  and  the  inductive 
method  are  one  and  the  same  method.  One  goes  into  a 
laboratory  and  observes  that  heat  expands  iron,  that 
other  metals  expand  when  heated,  that  water  and  mer- 
cury expand  under  the  influence  of  heat;  in  fact,  all 
things  that  he  has  found  expand  under  the  influences  of 
heat.  He  thus  comes  to  the  conclusion  or  universal  "  All 
things  expand  when  heated." 

The  Goal  of  the  Recitation.  —  By  this  process  of  in- 
duction, going  from  the  individual  to  the  general,  we  reach 


100  The  Rural  School 

what  Mr.  Button  in  his  "  School  Management "  calls 
the  "  goal  of  instruction."  He  says  that  every  recitation 
should  have  for  its  goal  some  universal  truth.  For  ex- 
ample, a  lesson  in  subtraction  should  lead  up  to  the  rule 
for  subtraction;  a  lesson  in  percentage  should  lead  to  the 
rule  for  working  examples  in  this  case  in  percentage;  a 
lesson  in  history  should  lead  to  some  moral  truth  or 
patriotic  sentiment. 

Whatever  may  be  the  advantage  of  the  inductive 
method,  we  are  called  upon  sometimes  to  present  sub- 
jects that  cannot  be  taught  inductively,  and  must  use 
deduction.  No  one  need  be  alarmed,  for  it  is  a  good 
method.  Doubtless,  the  mind  often  follows  induction  by 
deduction.  Our  conclusions  derived  from  induction  are 
often  hastily  reached  and  faulty,  and  we  need  to  test  them 
by  deduction. 

REFERENCES 

Bryan,  The  Basis  of  Practical  Teaching  {chapters  9,  10, 
11).    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Colgrove,  Teacher  and  the  School  {chapter  17).  1910. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.25. 

Button,  School  Management  {chaptets  11  and  12).  1903. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.00. 

Hamilton,  The  Recitation.  1906.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co., 
$1.25. 

Hinsdale,  Art  of  Study  {chapter  8).  American  Book  Co., 
$1.00. 

Keith,  Elementary  Education  {chapters  8  and  9).  1905. 
Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  $1.25. 

Roark,  Method  in  Education  {p.  53).  1899.  American 
Book  Co.,  $1.00. 


Chapter    XI  ' 

TEACHING    PUPILS    HOW    TO    STUDY 

Meaning  of  Study.  —  By  studying  we  mean  the  con- 
centrating of  the  mind  upon  a  certain  subject.  The  de- 
grees of  studying  in  school  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 
first,  the  simple  thinking  of  a  little  child  in  comiection 
with  its  seat  work;  second,  gleaning  thought  from  the 
printed  page;  third,  judging;  fourth,  reasoning  such  as 
is  required  in  solving  difficult  problems  in  arithmetic. 

Importance.  —  The  importance  of  learning  to  study 
can  hardly  be  overestimated.  When  one  has  learned  to 
study,  he  has  acquired  the  means  of  obtaining  an  educa- 
tion; even  more,  he  has  a  large  part  of  his  education  al- 
ready secured,  for  knowing  how  to  study  is  a  good  part  of 
an  education. 

The  Old  Plan  and  the  New.  —  From  an  inquiry  of 
classes  in  a  normal  school,  it  has  been  found  that  few,  and 
many  times  none,  have  had  any  instruction  whatever  in 
the  grades  in  the  art  of  study.  Teachers  have  not  thought 
that  there  was  any  instruction  to  give  about  study,  ex- 
cept to  tell  the  pupils  to  study.  Many  of  us  in  our  child- 
hood days,  when  we  were  in  earnest  about  studying,  knew 
of  no  other  way  than  to  repeat,  and  we  were  encouraged 
to  repeat  by  being  requested  to  read  our  lesson  over  five 
times,  to  study  our  spelling  over  ten  times.  This  we  used 
to  do  in  the  following  way:  b-a-ba-k-e-r-ker,  baker;  b-a- 
ba-k-e-r-ker,  baker;  b-a-ba-k-e-r-ker,  baker,  as  fast  as  we 

101 


102  The  Rural  School 

could  make  our  tongues  go,  and  with  as  Uttle  thought 
about  how  "  baker  "  was  spelled  as  possible.  We  could 
do  this  and  think  most  of  the  time  about  something  else, 
and  this  was  the  feature  that  commended  itself  to  the 
average  boy  or  girl.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  there  was  no 
mind  concentration  in  this  process.  Its  value  depended 
entirely  on  the  law  of  repetition;  but  there  are  ways  of 
learning  and  remembering  things  other  than  by  repeating 
them,  and  some  of  them  are  more  economical.  In  teach- 
ing pupils  how  to  study,  the  plan  should  be  comprehensive, 
suited  in  its  devices  to  the  various  grades  of  the  school. 
The  little  beginner  should  be  started,  for  if  he  is  ever  to  be 
a  scholar  he  must  learn  to  study.  (Beginners  are  not  how- 
ever to  study  in  the  common  acceptance  of  the  term, 
and  as  they  are  often  required  to  do.)  The  pupils  learn- 
ing to  read  ought  to  be  getting  the  thought  from  the 
printed  page,  and  so  on  throughout  all  the  grades  of 
the  school. 

STAGES  IN  THE  ART  OF  STUDY 

Teaching  Beginners  to  Study.  —  As  was  said  in  the 
previous  paragraph,  first-year  pupils  should  not  be  ex- 
pected to  do  independent  study,  and  even  second-year 
pupils  camiot  do  much  studying,  in  the  common  accept- 
ance of  the  term.  The  practice  of  many  rural  teachers 
of  putting  the  book  into  the  hands  of  first-year  pupils, 
and  expecting  them  to  study  is  all  wrong.  Yet  they  should 
be  doing  something  that  contains  the  elements  of  study 
and  which  will  lead  them  into  the  art  of  study.  Let  us 
illustrate.  It  is  conceded  by  psychologists  that  nmscular 
activity,  especially  that  which  is  under  the  control  of  the 
will,  builds  nerve  or  l^rain  power;  hence  the  reason  for 
manual  training  in  the  scihool  curriculum,  and  hence  the 
place  for  much  of  the  busy  work  or  seat  work  used  by  all 


Teaching  Pupils  How  to  Study  103 

good  primary  teachers.  The  child  who  is  placing  two 
colored  sticks  in  several  positions,  as,  ^,  "^,  +,  X,  etc., 
is  doing  some  elementary  study  or  thinking.  When  he  is 
sewing  the  outline  of  a  leaf  or  pricking  the  holes  in  a  card 
to  be  sewed,  he  is  doing  appropriate  study  for  a  child  that 
has  just  entered  school  and  has  never  learned  this  work. 
In  special  schools  for  feeble-minded  children,  the  first 
lesson  is  often  some  simple  act,  such  as  jumping  over  a 
stick.  Something  like  this  is  thought  to  be  sufficient  at 
first,  and  by  gradually  making  the  requirement  more 
difficult  it  is  hoped  to  arouse  the  mind  to  activity. 

Much  of  the  beginner's  first  work  is  imitation  of  what 
the  teacher  has  just  done,  but  there  is,  or  should  be, 
thought  in  this  imitation,  and  there  will  be,  if  it  is  properly 
presented  by  the  teacher.    For  example,  the  children  are 
learning  to  write  the  word  "  flower."    The  teacher  slowly 
writes  the  word  on  the  board  while  the  children  are  watch- 
ing every  movement  of  the  teacher's  hand.    The  teacher 
calls  attention  to  the  form  of  the  letter  ''  f,"  —  that  its 
back  is  straight,  that  the  upper  part  extends  up  farther 
than  the  "  o  "  or  "  w,"  that  the  upper  part  is  just  hke 
the  "I,"  that  the  lower  part  extends  down  as  far  below 
the  line  as  the  upper  part  extends  above  the  line.    He  will 
call  attention  to  how  to  go  from  the  "  f  "  to  the  "  1,"  from 
the  "  1  "  to  the  "  o,"  etc.    He  will  now  hide  the  word  or 
have  pupils  close  their  eyes  and  try  to  see  the  word;  after 
this  he  will  erase  the  word  and  have  them  try  to  write  it. 
This  process  of  teaching  writing  is  a  thoughtful  process 
and  requires  study,   as  intricate  and  exacting  as  little 
children  should  be  required  to  attempt. 

The  study  of  the  first  year  should  be  something  of  what 
has  been  suggested  above  and  should  be  almost  wholly 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  seat  work,  the 
reading,  the  number  work,  in  fact  all  the  work  of  the  school 


104  The  Rural  School 

should  be  thoughtful  work.  In  teaching  the  first  lesson  in 
reading,  the  teacher  will  try  to  get  thought  expression 
from  the  pupil;  this  thought  expressed  he  may  use  for  the 
first  sentence  in  the  reading  lesson.  If  the  thought  is  the 
pupil's,  there  will  be  no  trouble  in  getting  correct  ex- 
pression in  reading;  but  if  the  thought  is  not  the  pupil's 
own,  he  will  get  correct  expression  by  leading  questions 
which  will  suggest  the  thought.  Thus,  the  very  beginning 
of  reading  may  be  a  thoughtful  process.  The  thought  is 
directed  and  brought  out  by  the  teacher  and  it  is  not  cus- 
tomarily called  study,  but  it  is  elementary  study  under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher.  It  is  not  the  grade  of  study 
required  to  get  the  thought  from  the  printed  page,  a  thing 
which  children  of  this  age  should  not  be  expected  to  do 
without  the  help  of  the  teacher. 

Thought  Getting.  —  If  the  kind  of  thought  work  sug- 
gested above  is  carried  through  the  first  year  and  con- 
tinued in  the  second  year,  by  the  middle  of  the  second 
year,  pupils  may  be  expected  to  do  some  thought  gleaning 
for  themselves.  This  will  have  to  be  stimulated  by  the 
teacher,  for  where  there  is  so  much  effort  required  in  learn- 
ing to  recognize  and  pronounce  words,  if  the  teacher  is 
not  careful,  the  energy  will  all  be  expended  in  this  direc- 
tion and  none  will  be  left  for  getting  the  meaning  of  what 
is  read.  Indeed,  in  many  schools  the  whole  effort  of  the 
pupil  is  expended  in  getting  the  words.  This  is  true  in  re- 
gard to  the  higher  grades  also,  and  even  in  the  seventh 
grade,  pupils  are  not  getting  the  thought  from  the  reading 
lessons.  To  call  the  word  correctly  seems  to  be  the  height 
of  the  ambition  of  many  reading  classes.  This  ambition 
is  encouraged  by  the  practice  of  allowing  the  pupils  to 
make  all  the  corrections  in  the  reading  class,  for,  as  a  rule, 
they  criticise  only  the  miscalled  words.  This  custom  has 
its  place,  but  it  should  not  be  the  only  and  most  important 


Teaching  Pupils  How  to  Study         105 

criticism  offered  by  class  or  teacher,  nor  should  word 
calling  be  counted  as  reading.  The  calling  of  the  words 
correctly  is,  no  doubt,  the  first  element,  in  process  of  time, 
in  good  reading;  but  in  advanced  reading,  this  part  should 
be  secondary,  requiring  little  thought  and  effort.  Thought 
getting  and  thought  expressing  should  absorb  most  of  the 
energy  and  effort.  The  reason  why  boys  and  girls  have 
hard  work  to  get  lessons  in  such  subjects  as  history  and 
civil  government,  is  that  they  have  not  learned  to  glean 
the  thought  from  the  reading  lesson.  This  is  where 
they  should  learn  it  first,  and  it  should  be  a  continuous 
process  from  the  first  day  in  school  to  the  last  classic  that 
the  school  is  expected  to  read.  Much  trouble  in  arith- 
metic comes  from  pupils  not  l^eing  thoughtful  readers. 
Our  boys  and  girls  have  not  learned  how  to  study  be- 
cause teachers  have  not  taught  them  how  to  study,  — 
they  have  not  required  thoughtful  work  in  reading,  the 
fundamental  subject. 

Judging.  —  In  the  study  of  history  and  classics  the 
pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  do  thinking  for  themselves. 
Pupils  are  quite  willing  to  take  the  opinions  of  the  author 
or  teacher  for  their  opinions.  Especially  in  regard  to 
morality  should  they  be  encouraged  to  form  judgments 
of  their  own.  The  teacher  should  not  be  too  free  to  ex- 
press his  opinions.  Let  him  hold  them  in  reserve  until 
the  members  of  the  class  have  expressed  theirs.  It  is 
sometimes  a  good  indication  when  a  pupil  differs  from 
the  opinion  of  the  teacher.  It  shows,  if  it  is  not  stubborn- 
ness merely,  that  he  is  doing  some  independent  thinking. 
Current  events  furnish  material  for  this  kind  of  thinking. 

Reasoning.  —  Analysis  in  grammar  and  analysis  in 
arithmetic  furnish  about  the  best  material  that  our  com- 
mon schools  have  for  this  higher  form  of  study.  Too  many 
of  our  teachers  allow  analysis  in  grammar  to  degenerate 


lOG  The  Rural  School 

into  diagramming  in  which  there  is  no  clear  meaning, 
and  neglect  analysis  in  arithmetic  altogether,  so  that  our 
boys  and  girls  get  little  training  in  this  essential  kind  of 
study.  In  order  to  be  good,  clear  thinkers,  they  must  be 
able  to  take  hold  of  a  subject  and  analyze  it,  whether  this 
be  a  speech  of  some  legislator,  or  whether  it  be  a  business 
proposition.  The  foundation  of  this  work  should  be 
laid  by  our  common  schools.  A  man  should  not  be  ex- 
pected to  get  this  training  wholly  from  experience,  for 
tuition  is  high  in  the  school  of  experience. 

Note  that  in  all  of  the  above  suggestions  there  are 
problems  of  some  nature  to  be  solved.  The  httle  beginner 
has  two  sticks  to  place  in  a  certain  directed  position. 
In  the  writing  of  the  word  floiver,  there  are  several  small 
problems  uniting  in  the  larger  problem  of  writing  the 
word.  When  the  child  begins  to  read  from  the  book,  he 
has  to  find  out  what  the  book  says  and  express  it  for  the 
teacher  and  his  fellow  pupils.  In  literature  or  history, 
when  the  pupil  is  asked  to  form  judgments  regarding  the 
character  of  Hamlet,  Arnold  or  Washington  he  has  a 
problem.  In  analysis  of  sentences  in  grammar  or  the 
solving  of  examples  in  arithmetic,  the  problem  is  very 
evident.  The  problem  serves  as  the  best  incentive  to 
study  of  any  device  yet  found. 

HINTS   ON  STUDYING 

The  Eye,  The  Hand,  The  Ear.^  Of  all  the  sense  organs 
the  eye  is,  perhaps,  the  most  serviceable  in  conveying  to 
us  knowledge,  both  from  books  and  from  nature.  Al- 
though our  eyes  sometunes  deceive  us,  yet  we  believe  in 
the  old  saying  that  "  seeing  is  believing."  Children  want 
to  see,  old  people  want  to  sec,  everybody  wants  to  see, 
for  every  one  learns  much  by  seeing.     Although  one 


Teaching  Pupils  How  to  Study  107 

learns  by  seeing,  he  is  not  satisfied  with  seeing  alone;  he 
wants  to  handle.  On  seeing  something  for  the  first  time, 
a  little  child  next  wants  to  handle  the  new  object,  and 
grown  people  are  much  like  children  in  this  respect.  Not 
everything  about  an  object  can  be  learned  by  the  use  of 
the  eyes.  Feeling  and  the  muscular  sense  add  to,  and 
correct,  the  knowledge  that  comes  through  the  eyes.  An 
object  may  look  heavy,  but  when  lifted  it  is  found  to  be 
light.  Some  retain  that  which  they  hear  much  longer  than 
that  which  they  read.  It  seems  that  sensations  which  come 
to  them  through  the  auditory  channel  are  retained  much 
more  easily  than  knowledge  gained  from  other  sources. 

From  these  facts  it  would  seem  that  it  is  important  to 
present  knowledge  through  the  three  channels  to  the 
mind,  viz.,  the  eye,  the  hand,  the  ear.  That  which  we 
see,  handle,  and  hear  we  know  more  about  and  remember 
longer.  The  writing  of  a  lesson  impresses  it  upon  the 
memory.  The  committing  to  memory  of  an  outline  or  the 
learning  of  a  lesson  in  spelling  is  often  facilitated  by  wri- 
ting the  same.  Drawing  a  map  or  an  outline  picture  of 
an  object  appeals  to  both  hand  and  eye.  The  teacher 
that  is  "  handy  "  with  chalk  will  find  that  it  materially 
aids  word  pictures  and  he  will  soon  be  known  as  one  who 
can  "  explain  things."  The  oral  element  should  not  be 
neglected  in  recitation  and  study.  In  studying  a  lesson 
in  reading,  pupils  should  often  be  encouraged  to  read 
aloud  to  themselves,  for  thereby  they  are  training  the  vocal 
organs  and  also  the  ear,  two  organs  that  must  be  trained 
to  do  good  work  in  oral  reading.  It  is  sometimes  good 
practice  to  read  aloud  a  lesson  in  history,  physiology,  etc., 
for  thus  the  ears  are  brought  into  use  along  with  the  eyes. 

In  general,  the  greater  the  number  of  the  senses  that 
can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  an  object,  the  more  knowledge 
will  be  acquired  and  the  longer  will  it  be  retained. 


108  The  Rural  School 

Three  Times  Over.  —  Children  are  sometimes  en- 
couraged to  study  their  lessons  many  times  over,  and  this 
often  becomes  an  ideal  of  perfect  study,  so  that  the  child 
who  has  studied  his  lesson  over  "  ten  times,"  has  about 
reached  the  goal  of  perfection  in  study.  But  if  this  is 
given  due  consideration,  it  will  be  seen  that  "  ten  times  " 
cannot  be  ideal,  for  the  student  would  make  slow  progress 
if  he  were  compelled  to  go  over  his  lessons  ten  times.  The 
ideal  is  one  time.  The  advanced  student  should  strive 
to  get  a  lesson  so  well  in  once  going  over  it  that  he  will  not 
need  to  go  over  it  again.  This  will  take  concentration  of 
thought  and  close  application,  such  as  is  not  expected  of 
pupils  in  the  grades.  But  they  should  not  be  led  to  think 
that  they  should  go  over  a  lesson  many  times  in  order  to 
learn  it.  This  is  permissible  only  when  the  purpose  is 
drill.  When  an  artist  is  training  the  voice,  or  hand,  or 
some  other  of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  it  is  necessary  to 
repeat  again  and  again,  and  here,  also,  thoughtful  repeti- 
tion is  much  more  effectual  than  thoughtless  repetition. 
Too  frequently  this  "  many  times  over "  is  merely 
thoughtless  repetition. 

Mr.  Roark  in  his  "  Method  in  Education  "  suggests 
that  a  lesson  should  be  learned  in  going  over  it  three 
times.  The  first  time  it  should  be  read  as  a  whole.  This 
can  be  done  more  or  less  hurriedly,  aiming  to  get  a  general 
view  of  the  lesson.  The  second  time  it  should  be  studied 
very  carefully,  studying  each  paragraph  separately  and 
noting  the  particulars  that  come  under  this  sub-topic. 
Most  textbooks  have  the  subjects  of  each  paragraph  in 
heavy-faced  type;  these  furnish  the  sub-topics  mider 
which  the  student  may  arrange  his  knowledge  of  the 
lesson.  In  this  second  going  over,  the  pupil  is  supposed  to 
continue  his  study  of  the  topic  until  he  understands  it  and 
knows  what  is  in  this  division  of  the  lesson.    Thus,  para- 


Teaching  Pupils  How  to  Study         109 

graph  by  paragraph,  he  goes  over  his  lesson,  picking  the 
whole  to  pieces.  It  now  only  remains  for  him  to  put  it 
together  again.  This  he  does  in  the  third  going  over. 
This  time  he  may  simply  look  at  the  headings  of  each  para- 
graph, thinking  them  back  into  the  whole  lesson.  If  it 
should  happen  that  he  has  forgotten  what  is  said  in  one 
of  the  paragraphs,  he  will  have  to  read  it  over  again,  but 
as  soon  as  its  contents  come  to  him,  he  will  go  on. 

Concentration.  —  These  suggestions  can  be  followed 
only  when  thought  is  put  into  the  study.  Students 
sometimes  find  themselves  reading  along  but  thinking 
about  something  else.  The  thing  to  do  under  these  cir- 
cumstances is  to  go  back  to  the  place  where  his  thinking 
ceased  and  begin  over  again.  If  the  student  will  ask  and 
answer  for  himself  this  question,  it  will  be  a  great  aid 
to  him  in  getting  on  the  track  again,  "  What  is  the  sub- 
ject about  which  I  am  reacUng?  "  or  in  other  words, 
"  What  is  this  author  talking  about?  "  Sometimes  this 
should  lead  back  to  the  general  subject,  and  again  to  the 
subject  of  the  paragraph.  This  question  and  its  answer 
will  often  lend  aid  to  an  understanding  of  what  an  author 
means  in  a  sentence  that  is  difficult  of  interpretation. 

All  of  the  above  is  but  another  way  of  saying  that  study 
is  a  thoughtful  process.  It  is  study  only  when  the  mind 
attends,  and  the  more  intently  the  mind  attends,  the 
more  of  its  energy  that  is  focused  upon  the  subject  at 
hand,  the  more  will  be  accomplished.  The  more  the  mind 
is  concentrated  upon  the  subject  at  hand,  the  more  the 
mind  is  absorbed  in  the  subject,  or  absorbs  the  subject, 
the  higher  the  character  of  study  becomes.  It  is  wonderful 
what  can  be  accomplished  by  a  mind  that  concentrates 
itself  upon  a  lesson  to  be  learned,  and  wonderful  how 
little  time  it  takes  to  accomplish  a  great  task.  This  kind 
of  work  is  intense,  absorbing;  the  worker  becomes  ahnost 


no  The  Rural  School 

oblivious  of  surroundings  and  for  the  time  knows  but 
one  thing. 

The  person  who  can  study  in  this  way  does  not  need 
the  usual  time  in  which  to  get  a  lesson.  A  lesson  that 
it  usually  takes  an  hour  to  prepare,  with  this  kind  of 
study  may  be  gotten  in  half  the  time.  As  a  rule,  pupils 
spend  more  time  than  is  necessary  in  getting  a  lesson.  A 
good  deal  of  the  time  is  spent  in  dawdling  over  the  lesson 
while  the  mind  is  stupid  and  half  awake.  Every  pupil 
who  has  tried  it  knows  that  he  can  get  a  lesson  in  half  the 
usual  time. 

Such  strenuous  study  cannot  long  be  sustained.  The 
mind  tires  and  must  have  relaxation.  A  study  of  a  differ- 
ent nature  affords  some  relief,  but  exercise  in  the  open 
air  is  the  best  restorer  of  mental  energy.  All  who  have 
graded  large  lists  of  examination  papers  know  how 
fatiguing  the  work  is,  for  the  monotony  of  going  over  the 
same  thing  time  after  time  induces  listlessness  and  lan- 
guor. The  writer  once  had  such  a  task  before  him  and 
tried  the  following  plan,  which  worked  well.  He  worked 
as  fast  and  diligently  as  he  could  for  about  an  hour  on  a 
number  of  papers  on  one  subject,  arithmetic  for  example, 
and  then  left  off  grading  for  ten  minutes  and  walked  in 
the  open  air.  Returning  to  the  papers  again,  he  worked 
as  vigorously  as  possible,  this  time  on  grammar  papers. 
By  this  plan  he  thought  that  he  accomplished  more  in 
a  day  than  where  he  stayed  continuously  at  the  work. 

Motives  in  Study.  —  The  above  suggestions  are  more 
or  less  mechanical  and  may  not  appeal  to  the  pupil;  but 
if  a  motive  for  study  can  be  presented  to  the  child,  if 
he  can  see  why  he  is  expected  to  study,  or  better,  if 
he  sees  the  end  near  at  hand  for  which  he  is  working, 
his  efforts  will  be  spontaneous,  vigorous  and  worth 
while.     If  the  little  child  is  making  a  pretty  card  or  mat 


Teaching  Pupils  How  to  Study  111 

for  her  mother  she  will  work  with  much  more  zest  than 
if  there  is  no  end  in  view.  The  child  who  is  learning  to 
read  so  that  he  may  read  a  story  for  himself  or  for  an- 
other will  find  more  interest  in  the  reading  lesson. 
Motivation  is  a  subject  to  which  the  five  teacher  should 
give  special  study.  A  good  reference  is  given  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter. 

REFERENCES 

Charters,  Methods  of  Teaching  (chapters  9,  10,  11). 
1912.    Row,  Peterson  and  Company. 

Button,  School  Management  (chapter  13).  1903. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.00. 

Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study.  1909.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  60c. 

Hinsdale,  Art  of  Study  (chapter  10).  American  Book 
Co.,   $1.00. 

Jones,  Principles  of  Education  (chapters).  1911.  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  $1.00. 

McMurry,  How  to  Study.  1909.  Houghton  ]\Iifflin 
Co.,  $1.25. 

Roark,  Method  in  Education  (p.  48).  American  Book 
Co.,  $1.00. 


Chapter  XII 

PLAY  AND  PLAYGROUNDS 
THE  FUNCTION   OF  PLAY 

Many  have  thought,  and  some  doubtless  still  think, 
that  play  is  a  sort  of  necessary  evil.  "  Children  will  play 
and  you  cannot  help  it,  but  it  would  be  much  better  if 
they  did  not,"  has  been  the  opinion  held  by  very  many 
"  grown-ups." 

A  little  study  will  show  the  fallacy  of  this  position. 
Play  is  an  instinct  given  the  child  for  its  protection  or 
good  in  some  way.  Some  one  has  said  that  the  only  ani- 
mals that  can  be  trained  are  those  animals  that  play  while 
they  are  young.  If  this  is  true,  then  there  must  be  some 
relation  between  play  and  development.  Dr.  Woods 
Hutchinson,  in  the  Contemporary  Review  of  September, 
1903,  says  that  the  child  plays  through  the  five  stages  of 
development  of  the  race,  viz.,  the  "  root  and  grub,"  the 
"  hunting,"  the  "  pastoral,"  the  "  agricultural,"  and 
the  "  commercial  "  stages.  He  thinks,  when  the  little 
child  wants  to  put  everything  he  gets  into  his  mouth, 
that  he  is  passing  through  the  root  and  grub  stage  —  he  is 
merely  living  through  that  prehistoric  period  when  man 
lived  on  roots  that  he  dug  from  the  ground.  When, 
a  little  later,  he  is  hiding  behind  doors  to  jump  out  at 
papa  or  sister,  he  is  passing  through  the  hunting  period 
of  the  race;  and  so  on  through  the  different  periods,  until 

112 


Play  and  Playgrounds  113 

he  wants  to  keep  store,  trade  knives,  and  gather  the 
products  of  many  lands  and  keep  them  all  in  his  pocket. 
Then  he  has  reached  the  culmination  of  his  race  —  the 
commercial  stage.  Whether  or  not  this  theory  of  Mr. 
Hutchinson's  is  correct,  it  suggests  to  us  that  the  child 
is  developed  through  play,  and  with  this  we,  as  teachers, 
are  interested. 

Development  of  the  Body.  —  We  have  but  to  look 
about  us  to  convince  ourselves  that  play  has  a  very  im- 
portant use  in  the  developing  of  the  child  into  manhood. 
Is  it  not  the  natural  method  of  educating  or  training 
human  beings  for  usefulness?  The  babe  in  the  crib 
begins  very  early  in  life  to  throw  out  his  hands  and  kick 
his  feet,  and  the  more  vigorous  this  activity  is  the  more 
pleased  he  seems.  And  all  these  throws  of  the  hand  are 
teaching  him  to  control  its  movements  and  find  the  way 
to  his  mouth;  and  all  these  kicks  of  his  little  feet  are 
making  his  legs  strong  enough  to  hold  his  weight  and  carry 
his  unstable  body  whither  his  head  directs.  So  it  is  not 
hard  to  believe  that  play  develops  the  physical  being, 
for  it  gives  the  child  use  of  his  hands  and  feet;  it  makes 
more  acute  his  hearing,  and  sharpens  his  eyesight;  it 
gives  him  suppleness  of  the  whole  body  by  bringing  every 
joint  and  muscle  into  use  and  under  his  control. 

Development  of  the  Mind.  —  But  play  does  more  than 
develop  his  body;  for,  as  Dr.  Hutchinson  says,  "  When 
the  child  plays  it  is  not  merely  relaxing  itself,  getting  an 
appetite,  getting  health;  it  is  literally  building  and  organ- 
izing its  body,  nay,  its  brain  and  mind."  He  also  says, 
"  Every  sport  worth  the  name  develops  not  merely 
strength,  endurance,  and  fleetness,  but  also  alertness, 
quickness  of  repose,  coolness,  balance,  and  wariness,  judg- 
ment that  is  both  sound  and  swift."  If  there  is  a  man 
running  from  first  base  to  second  and  one  from  second 


114 


The  Rural  School 


■ii.,.  :  j 

.:<»■ 

Jt.^.-.rJ^M.    ■     iK^  ^    ^^\- 

^K^l^fl          'W'              ^^B'    ~*'^i3H 

PLAYING    DODGE    BALL 

to  third,  in  a  game  of  baseball,  the  shortstop  that  catches 
a  fly  ball  must  decide  almost  instantly  where  to  throw 
it.  An  error  in  judgment  may  lose  the  game  for  his  side. 
So  it  is  with  many  of  the  games  that  young  people  play  — 
they  require  quick  and  accurate  judgment  that  is  of 
practical  benefit  in  after  life.  Some  railroad  men  were 
talking  about  an  accident  that  occurred,  and  they  were 
of  the  opinion  that  the  engineer  was  unable  to  bring  him- 
self to  prompt  action  and  stop  his  train  at  an  unexpected 
signal,  so  he  wrecked  his  train  and  lost  his  life.  Perhaps 
if  he  had  had  this  experience  in  games  that  require  im- 
mediate and  accurate  judgment  he  could  have  reversed 
the  lever,  closed  the  throttle  and  saved  his  train. 

HOW  THE   SCHOOL  SHOULD   PROVIDE  FOR  PLAY 


Love  of  Freedom.  —  In  every  human  being  there  seems 
to  be  a  struggle  of  the  will  to  be  free  —  a  revolt  against 
law  or  restraint.    In  play,  it  is  simply  a  sham ;  but  if  this 


Play  and  Playgrounds 


115 


LINE    UP   FOR   A    GAME    OF   MODIFIED    FOOTBALL 

Designed  for  boys  below  high  school  grade 


revolt  becomes  real  and  against  constituted  authority, 
it  is  a  crime.  This  explains  why  school  children  are  in- 
clined to  play  pranks.  School  children,  who  are  under  the 
control  of  a  teacher  during  school  time,  when  recess  comes 
break  away  from  the  restraints  of  school  discipline  and 
give  full  freedom  to  their  wills  in  the  outdoor  recess. 
Closely  directed  exercise,  such  as  marches  and  drills  or 
gymnastic  exercises,  will  not  take  the  place  of  free  play. 
At  the  free  recess  he  can  imitate  the  conventionalities 
of  real  life,  by  playing  school,  by  contests  of  strength  and 
fleetness,  by  mock  battles  in  football,  baseball,  and  snow- 
balling. All  these  and  many  others  are  imitations  of  the 
real  transactions  of  life  and  are  entered  into  with  zest 
and  perfect  freedom. 

Even  grown  men  and  women  who  put  themselves  under 
restraint  and  bind  themselves  down  to  books  and  school 
must  have  their  time  of  relaxation  and  freedom  from  this 
restraint.  This  breaking  away  is  so  vigorous  and  so 
extreme  that  the  authorities  are  sometimes  shocked  and 
chagrined.  The  whole  nation  of  England  went  from  the 
strict,  hymn-singing  times  of  Oliver  Cromwell  to  the 
merry,  profligate  times  of  Charles  II. 


116  The  Rural  School 

Neither  grown  people  nor  children  can  endure  restraint 
all  the  time;  there  must  be  a  time  of  freedom.  It  is  true 
that  "  all  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy,"  but 
it  is  equally  true  that  all  play  and  no  work  makes  Jack 
a  profligate  boy.  There  must  be  equilibrium,  and  it  is 
the  place  of  the  school  to  take  account  of  this  and  provide 
for  both  work  and  play.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
school  that  judiciously  provides  means  and  opportunity 
for  free  play  on  the  schoolground,  will  get  the  best  work, 
both  in  kind  and  quantity. 

In  the  Normal  Bulletin  which  is  sent  to  the  rural 
teachers  of  Kansas,  Mr.  Clair  Turner  of  the  Physical 
Training  Department  of  the  Kansas  State  Normal  School 
has  spoken  so  well  on  the  subject  of  the  recess  that  by 
permission  I  am  quoting  him  at  length.    He  says: 

The  Recess  Gang. — "  Mr.  Principal  or  Superintendent, 
what  are  you  doing  for  that  crowd  of  boys  that  collects  in 
the  corner  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  school  building  at 
recess  these  fall  days?  Do  you  know  the  theme  of  the 
conversation  there?  How  about  the  stories  that  are  told, 
and  the  plans  that  are  laid  for  the  afternoon's  mischief 
in  school?  If  the  crowd  is  a  regular  one  about  your  school 
building  you  may  as  well  get  out  your  apple  sprouts  or 
your  suspension  blanks,  for  soon  there  is  bound  to  be  a 
fight,  or  other  disturbance  just  as  bad.  Probably  al- 
ready there  have  been  complaints  by  neighl)ors  of  stone 
throwing  or  broken  windows,  or  of  young  children  being 
tormented. 

"  These  things  can  be  easily  prevented  and  the  gang 
broken  up  by  giving  the  boys  something  to  do,  for  boys 
were  made  to  do  things,  and,  if  there  is  not  something 
good  for  them  to  do,  they  will  do  something  perhaps  not 
so  good.  Now  the  boy  is  naturally  interested  in  gymnas- 
tics and  athletics  and  he  has  an  almost  uncontrollable 


play  and  Playgrounds 


117 


PLAYING    GERMAN   BALL 


play  instinct.  The  teacher  has  a  great  opportunity  to 
take  advantage  of  these  play  tendencies  as  a  means  of 
developing  growing  muscles  as  well  as  growing  brains. 
In  the  fifteen  minutes  twice  a  day  provided  by  most 
Kansas  schools,  the  teacher  can  get  better  acquainted  with 
the  pupils  under  his  charge  than  he  is  able  to  do  through- 
out the  whole  year. 

"  Upon  the  playground  the  teacher  can  get  into  the 
real  boy  world.  Here  he  will  often  find  his  dullard  a  tjT)- 
ical  general,  and  perhaps  be  shocked  to  find  his  favorite 
boy  student  not  even  considered  in  the  '  choosing  up  ' 
for  a  game.  Perhaps,  too,  he  may  see  the  boy  who  can 
never  get  up  courage  enough  to  make  a  recitation,  dive 
right  into  a  football  scrimmage,  and  another  one  with 
courage  enough  in  school,  who  will  shamelessly  run  away 
when  there  is  danger  of  being  '  roughed  up  '  a  bit  in  a 


118 


The  Rural  School 


A   SUDE    ON    A    RUKAL    I'LAYGKOX'XD 


game.  So  the  teacher  who  would  really  know  his  pupils 
and  prevent  the  rising  of  the  mob  spirit  must  be  with  them 
at  play  and  direct  them  in  their  games. 

"  The  recess  instead  of  being  a  period  of  aimless  loafing 
should  be  entirely  devoted  to  pleasurable  physical  ac- 
tivity that  would  increase  circulation,  oxygenize  the 
blood,  make  sound  muscles,  give  relief  from  sitting  and 


Play  and  Playgrounds 


119 


A   COMBINATION   APPARATUS 
Ladder,  rings,  slide  and  two  swings  all  in  one 


stooping  postures  and  at  the  same  time  develop  courage, 
self-reliance,  and  loyalty  for  team  and  school. 

Playground  Apparatus.  —  "  Gymnastic  apparatus  upon 
the  playground  can  be  made  very  interesting,  and  there 
are  many  kinds  that  can  be  provided  by  the  boys  them- 
selves at  very  little  expense.  One  thing  that  never  fails 
to  attract  is  a  jumping  pit  made  by  digging  a  hole  one 
foot  deep  and  six  feet  wide  and  say  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long.  Fill  this  pit  with  builder's  sand,  and  you  have  an 
excellent  landing  place  for  broad  and  high  jumping,  as  well 
as  for  pole  vaulting  and  even  tumbling. 

"  Another  piece  of  playground  apparatus  easily  made  is 
a  German  horse.  Get  a  log  about  sixteen  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  about  six  feet  long.  Set  it  upon  four  legs  so  that 
it  will  furnish  a  back  about  three  feet  from  the  ground. 
Get  the  blacksmith  to  make  two  grips  or  pommels  of  iron 


120 


The  Rural  School 


/       / 

bi 

•Mm^   :■       ^,    ^' 

A  COMBINATION  OF  SWINGS  AND  TEETER  BOARDS 


that  can  be  placed  transversely  on  the  log,  one  about  where 
a  saddle  horn  would  be  and  the  other  where  the  back 
rim  of  the  saddle  would  come.  Make  these  large  enough 
to  grasp  easily  when  bolted  through  the  horse.  Now  make 
a  jumping  pit  at  one  side  of  the  horse,  and  you  have  a  piece 
of  apparatus  that  will  provide  a  great  variety  of  exercises 
that  children  will  enjoy. 

"  A  horizontal  bar  can  be  easily  made  with  six  feet  of 
two-inch  gas  pipe  and  a  couple  of  poles  for  uprights. 
This  bar  should  be  high  enough  to  allow  the  average  boy 
to  swing  under  it  with  arras  and  body  at  full  length  and 
should  have  a  jumping  pit  under  it  extending  at  least  six 
feet  each  way  from  under  the  bar.  A  low  horizontal  bar 
can  be  made  similar  to  the  high  one.  It  should  be  about 
three  feet  from  the  ground."  This  will  provide  for  the 
smaller  children. 


A  giant's  stride 
11211 


122  The  Rural  School 

What  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  equipping  a  school 
playground  is  graphically  shown  at  Ellis,  Kansas.  The 
equipment  is  simple  and  inexpensive,  yet  well  adapted 
to  the  purpose.  There  are  swings  for  the  boys  and 
swings  for  the  girls,  a  "  teeter-totter,"  a  tennis  court, 
a  baseball  diamond,  oblique  ladder,  turning  poles, 
giant's  stride  and  vaulting  poles.  Besides  these  there 
are  seven  sets  of  horseshoes,  one  set  of  boxing  gloves, 
several  sets  of  jumping  weights,  hammer  shot,  and  a 
twenty-foot  climbing  rope.  All  these  things  were  bought 
and  paid  for  by  the  pupils  and  teachers  of  the  school. 
Not  a  cent  came  from  the  treasury.  This  apparatus  is 
used.  I  was  surprised  in  examining  the  swings  to  find 
the  ground  worn  out  about  a  foot  deep  under  each  swing, 
showing  that  they  had  been  extensively  used.  The  prin- 
cipal told  me  that  when  everything  else  was  out  of 
use  the  giant's  stride  was  still  going. 

Do  you  see  how  to  make  a  giant's  stride? 

It  is  just  an  old  wagon  wheel  and  spindle  on  the  top 
of  a  good  pole  firmly  set  in  the  ground,  and  ropes  or 
chains  from  the  rim.  All  the  other  apparatus  is  simple 
in  construction,  but  answers  every  purpose.  If  to  this 
were  added  a  sand  pile  and  some  blocks  from  a  carpenter 
shop  for  the  benefit  of  the  little  people,  you  would  have 
a  very  complete  equipment. 

The  principal  thinks  that  the  effort  he  has  put  upon 
the  playgrounds  has  materially  aided  the  school,  not  only 
in  the  attendance,  but  also  in  discipline  and  the  quality 
of  the  work  done  in  the  classroom.  Since  the  playgrounds 
have  been  thus  equipped  there  has  been  little  or  no  need 
of  punishment.  There  have  been  very  few  failures  in  the 
grades  and  lower  classes  of  the  high  school,  and  none  in 
the  higher  classes,  and  the  school  is  well  represented  in  the 
University  and  other  institutions  of  the  state. 


Play  and  Playgrounds 


123 


"  SKINNING   THE   SNAKE  " 

Apparatus  for  Rural  Schools.  —  The  teacher  of  a  rural 
school  may  think  that  these  things  are  all  right  for  a 
village  or  city  school,  but  that  they  cannot  be  had  in  a 
country  school.  While  it  is  true,  perhaps,  that  not  all 
these  things  may  be  obtained  for  a  rural  school,  yet  what 
is  needed  may  be  secured.  The  teacher  can  have  some 
of  them,  if  he  wants  them  and  is  willing  to  put  forth  an 
honest  effort  to  get  them.  It  will  depend  very  much 
upon  the  school  what  can  be  gotten  and  what  is  needed. 
If  there  is  a  number  of  large  girls  in  school,  a  basket  ball 
equipment  is  good.  If  little  people  predominate,  a  swdng 
and  a  sand  pile  are  perhaps  all  that  is  needed.  What 
should  be  gotten  will  depend  very  much  upon  the  school 
and  surroundings. 

Games  and  Plays.  —  But  if  equipment  for  a  playground 
cannot  be  gotten,  a  book  of  school  games  and  plays  can 
be  put  into  the  library  and  the  children  taught  new  games 


124  The  Rural  School 

when  the  old  ones  wear  out.  There  are  plenty  of  games 
that  do  not  require  any  equipment,  and  that  will  keep  the 
children  interested  on  the  playground.  Many  good  ones 
may  be  found  in  the  books  listed  below. 

Remember  that  games  and  plays  educate  as  well  as 
develop  the  body,  and  that  they  are  a  part  of  every  good 
school. 

REFERENCES 

Angell,  Play.    1910.    Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  $1.50. 

Bancroft,  Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School  and 
Gymnasium.     1909.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.50. 

Hetherington,  Fundamental  Education.  N.  E.  A.  Pro- 
ceedings, 1910. 

Johnson,  Education  hy  Plays  and  Games.  1907.  Ginn 
&  Co.,  School  ed.,  90c. 

Jones,  Principles  of  Education  (chapter  4)-  1911.  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  $1.00. 

Perry,  Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant  (p.  149).  1910. 
(Russell  Sage  Foundation  Publications.)  Survey  Asso- 
ciates, Inc.,  N.  Y.,  $1.25. 

Playground  Association  of  America,  Proceedings  and 
Publications.     New  York. 


Chapter    XIH 
THE    LIBRARY    AND    ITS    USES 

Importance.  —  Every  school  that  is  without  a  Hbrary 
is  placed  at  a  disadvantage.  One  of  the  great  objects  of 
the  school  is  to  acquaint  the  pupils  with  good  books,  and 
to  give  them  ability  to  use  them.  If  in  his  school  days  a 
pupil  comes  into  contact  with  his  textbooks  only,  his 
opportunity  is  dwarfed  and  the  school  is  doing  only  part 
of  what  it  should  do  for  him.  Why  does  the  child  spend 
so  much  time  in  learning  to  read  unless  he  is  going  to  use 
this  ability  in  reading?  And  will  he  not  take  more  interest 
in  learning  to  read  if  he  sees  that  it  is  all  for  a  purpose, 
namely,  to  read  something  for  his  own  gratification  and 
pleasure? 

Then,  the  textbook  is  written  with  a  definite  object  in 
view,  and  much  that  is  of  interest  to  the  child  must  be 
sacrificed  in  order  to  accomplish  this  object.  For  example, 
the  readers  must  be  graded  so  that  the  pupil  will  be  led 
step  by  step  into  the  art  of  reading.  No  complete  long 
story  can  be  given,  no  poem  of  any  length  can  be  inserted, 
no  complete  biography  can  be  used.  Just  snatches  of 
the  best  are  given,  and  the  teacher  is  supposed  to  lead 
the  pupils  to  an  interest  in  literature  from  these  bits  of 
the  great  masterpieces. 

What  is  true  of  literature  is  true  of  history.  Only  a 
small  part  of  what  is  known  of  our  country  can  be  put  into 

125 


126  The  Rural  School 

one  textbook.  There  should  be  other  histories  in  the 
school  for  those  whose  interest  may  lead  them  to  fur- 
ther reading. 

Thus  it  is  with  almost  every  study.  The  school  text- 
book merely  gives  the  pupil  a  start  in  the  subject,  and 
the  school  should  provide  means  for  advancement,  or, 
better  still,  encourage  advancement  into  broader  fields 
along  the  lines  wherein  the  pupil  shows  ability. 

ACQUIRING  A  LIBRARY 

How  to  Start  a  Library.  —  In  assembling  a  library,  do 
not  ask  for  general  contributions  from  the  patrons  of  the 
school.  One  will  feel  obliged  to  accept  all  the  books  that 
come,  and  in  doing  this  he  will  probably  receive  the 
rubbish  of  the  neighborhood.  Not  many  people  are 
willing  to  give  away  their  best  books,  but  will  freely  part 
with  those  for  which  they  do  not  care  to  provide  room 
any  longer.  Then,  too,  one  will  get  some  books  that  are 
worse  than  useless  to  the  school.  In  this  way  the  shelves 
can  be  filled  up,  but  the  library  will  be  useless,  to  say  the 
least.  As  a  rule,  buy  books  outright  from  a  list  that  has 
been  carefully  selected  by  competent  judges. 

Of  course,  if  there  is  a  library  fund  or  if  a  library  tax  can 
be  levied,  this  is  the  best  way  to  get  the  money.  Many 
teachers  have  started  a  library  by  giving  an  entertain- 
ment of  some  kind  and  charging  a  small  fee.  This  ac- 
complishes two  things,  it  secures  the  money  and  interests 
the  patrons  and  school  in  the  enterprise.  Often  when  a 
library  is  once  started,  it  will  be  maintained  and  built 
up  by  district  funds. 

Traveling  Libraries.  —  Thirty  or  more  states  have 
traveling  libraries.  These  are  managed  by  commissions 
or  boards  and  are  maintained  in  many  instances  at  state 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  127 

expense.  The  thing  of  interest  to  the  rural  teacher  who  is 
without  a  Ubrary,  however,  is  that  one  may  be  had  at  a 
very  nominal  expense.  Usually  this  is  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation to  and  from  the  depository.  A  letter  of  inquiry 
to  your  state  librarian,  or  secretary  of  the  library  com- 
mission, will  bring  needed  information.  In  case  these 
are  not  knowai,  make  inquiry  of  your  state  superintendent. 
No  school  need  be  without  a  small  library.  From  the 
traveling  library  at  a  cost  of  two  or  three  dollars,  a  list  of 
fifty  or  more  books  may  be  had  for  the  school  term.  Some- 
times a  teacher  has  the  opportunity  to  choose  such  books 
as  he  desires  for  his  school.  A  little  extra  enthusiasm  and 
a  bit  of  hard  work  will  raise  the  money. 

WHAT  TO  BUY 

How  to  Use  and  What  to  Buy.  —  How  to  use  often 
depends  on  what  there  is  to  be  bought,  and  what  to  buy, 
on  how  the  books  are  to  be  used.  In  purchasing  books  for 
a  library,  some  teachers,  and  others  also,  are  impressed 
with  the  idea  of  ''  getting  a  library."  This  is  a  vague  im- 
pression of  books,  and  almost  any  book  will  help  to  make 
this  library.  The  picture  of  a  number  of  books  is  clearly 
outlined  but  quality  and  usefulness  do  not  enter  into 
its  make-up,  so  the  object  is  often  to  get  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  showy  books.  This  is  akin  to  receiv- 
ing collections  from  the  neighborhood;  it  fills  up  the 
shelves  but  does  not  provide  a  library  that  can  be  used. 
Agents  try  to  sell  sets  of  books.  They  look  well  and  are 
all  right,  providing  there  is  unlimited  means  with  which 
to  build  up  a  library. 

A  Working  Library.  —  What  a  school  needs  first  is  a 
number  of  books  that  a  teacher  can  use  in  the  every-day 
work  of  the  school. 


128  The  Rural  School 

This  may  be  called  a  working  library.  Often,  in  buy- 
ing the  first  books  for  a  library,  the  teacher  thinks  he 
must  buy  books  for  general  reading,  such  as  would  be 
called  a  circulating  library.  But  a  better  way  is  to  buy 
books  for  use  in  the  school.  A  few  copies  of  Florence 
Bass'  "  Lessons  for  Beginners  "  make  an  excellent  choice 
for  the  teacher  who  expects  to  teach  beginners  reading 
by  the  object  method.  Miss  Bass  begins  with  plants,  — 
things  with  which  children  in  the  country  are  acquainted 
—  the  very  place  to  begin  so  that  the  object  may  be 
brought  into  the  room  and  the  teacher  may  proceed  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown,  presenting  first  the  object, 
then  the  spoken  word,  and  then  the  written  word.  A 
teacher  might  well  afford  to  buy  some  such  set  out  of 
his  own  earnings  if  they  could  not  be  gotten  for  the 
library  in  any  other  way. 

There  should  be  duplicate  copies  of  first  and  second 
readers  to  be  used  as  supplementary  readers.  Often  the 
teacher  will  want  to  use  them  for  sight  reading.  Then  he 
will  keep  the  books  in  his  own  possession  and  give  them 
to  the  class  only  at  the  recitation  period.  No  study  is 
supposed  to  be  given  to  such  lessons;  they  are  intended 
to  give  skill  in  reading  new  matter.  The  "  Mother 
Goose  Reader  "  is  an  excellent  book  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  suited  for  about  the  first  or  second  grade.  Enough 
copies  of  this  book  to  supply  an  average  class  in  school 
should  be  included  in  the  first  order.  Then  there  should 
be  a  number  of  books  for  nature  study  and  books  of  cul- 
tural value.  There  are  many  excellent  books  from  which 
to  make  this  selection. 

A  working  library  will  furnish  books  for  the  little  people 
so  that  they  may  read  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  the 
ability.  "  Child  Life,"  a  first  reader  published  by  Mac- 
millan,  is  a  good  book  for  this  purpose.    Some  that  are 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  129 

a  little  too  difficult  for  the  pupils  to  read  may  be  read  by 
the  teacher  and  the  stories  used  for  language  work  and 
ethical  instruction.  Perhaps  "  Sleepy-time  Stories," 
published  by  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  will  suit  most  teachers 
for  this  purpose. 

Again,  there  should  be  some  books  on  agriculture,  in 
order  that  the  boys  may  be  led  to  read  along  this  line. 
There  are  many  good  books  being  put  upon  the  market 
each  year,  and  much  good  information  can  be  obtained 
from  them.  "  Farm  Life  Readers,"  published  by  Silver, 
Burdett  and  Company,  is  a  series  which  will  commend 
itself  to  the  rural  teacher.  Then,  too,  the  writing  of  a 
postal  card  will  bring  valuable  information  from  the 
Agricultural  Department  at  Washington  or  from  the 
Agricultural  College  regarding  bulletins  and  reports. 
Many  of  these  can  be  had  for  the  asking. 

No  field  of  school  literature  is  richer  with  excellent 
helps  than  geography.  There  are  a  great  number  of 
sets  of  geography  helps,  each  covering  almost  the  whole 
field,  and  no  school  library  is  complete  without  a  number 
of  these  books.  They  furnish  the  material  for  making 
geography  the  most  interesting  subject  in  school  instead 
of  the  dryest.  By  the  use  of  such  books  the  subject  may 
be  made  more  useful  and  more  practical. 

Of  course,  there  should  be  books  on  history  to  supple- 
ment the  text  used,  but  it  is  of  equal,  or  perhaps  greater, 
value  that  a  number  of  history  stories  and  biographies 
be  furnished  the  young  to  lead  them  to  the  desire  for 
reading  history. 

A  library  would  not  be  complete  without  a  few  books 
for  general  reading.  A  good  many  boys  and  girls  have  no 
taste  for  reading.  For  this  reason  some  books  of  a  light 
nature  should  be  on  this  list.  Each  year  the  Kansas 
Reading  Circle  Board  selects  a  list  of  the  best  new  books. 


130  The  Rural  School 

USING  THE  LIBRARY 

Preparing  a  Place  for  the  Library.  —  Even  before  the 
library  has  been  purchased,  some  tliouglit  ougiit  to  be 
given  to  liow  to  preserve  it.  As  soon  as  it  has  been  de- 
termined that  books  will  be  bought  for  the  school,  "  Where 
shall  the  books  be  kept?  "  is  a  pertinent  question.  If 
there  is  money  enough,  with  the  first  order  a  case  should 
be  purchased.  This  is  taking  for  granted  that  a  bookcase 
was  not  built  into  the  house  when  it  was  first  erected. 
If  the  amount  of  money  is  small  and  the  need  of  books 
is  great,  as  is  usually  the  case,  no  embarrassment  need 
be  felt,  for  a  small  box  fitted  with  a  few  shelves  and  deep 
enough  to  receive  the  books,  may  be  nailed  to  the  wall, 
and  will  answer  every  purpose.  If  some  one  can  be  in- 
duced to  make  a  door  for  it,  the  cost  of  the  hinges  and 
lock  will  be  all  the  necessary  expense,  unless  it  is  for  a 
little  paint.  If  no  door  can  be  had,  the  teacher  or  one  of 
the  older  girls  can  make  a  curtain  that  will  cover  up  the 
rough  exterior  and  protect  the  books  from  dust. 

How  to  Use  a  Library.  —  It  is  sometimes  hard  to 
interest  boys  and  girls  in  good  books  and  get  them  to 
read  for  themselves.  The  following  way  has  been  sug- 
gested by  a  teacher  of  long  experience  in  the  teaching  of 
literature:  Let  the  teacher  read  to  the  school  an  inter- 
esting chapter  from  a  book  and  then  place  it  on  the  shelves. 
Interest  will  thus  be  aroused  and  pupils  will  be  asking  for 
more  from  that  book.  The  teacher  will  say,  "  You  may 
take  the  book  and  read  it  for  yourself,  if  you  like."  Do 
not  suggest  that  pupils  read  it,  but  let  them  come  to  the 
teacher  first. 

Another  plan  is  to  go  through  the  geography  somewhat 
in  advance  of  the  class  to  see  what  aid  is  needed  and  what 
can  be  found  in  the  geograjDhy  helps.    Suppose  the  lesson 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  131 

is  about  China,  and  there  is  in  the  hbrary,  "  Stories  of 
China,"  by  Miss  Pratt.  When  something  of  interest 
is  found  in  this  book  some  such  note  as  the  following  in 
Hght  pencil  may  be  made  on  the  margin  of  the  geography : 
"  See  '  Stories  of  China,'  page  40."  There  will  usually  be 
found  in  the  class  some  one  who  can  get  his  lesson  and 
have  time  to  play.  Ask  this  one  to  look  up  what  is  on  page 
40  in  "  Stories  of  China  "  and  tell  it  to  the  class.  This 
accomplishes  two  things,  —  something  additional  and 
interesting  has  been  given  to  the  class,  and  the  bright 
pupil  has  been  given  something  to  do  to  keep  him  out  of 
mischief.     This  plan  can  be  used  in  other  subjects  also. 

Those  pupils  who  are  easily  stronger  than  the  other 
members  of  the  class  and  who  have  proved  themselves 
such  in  their  recitations  may  be  given  permission  to  use 
the  library  after  they  have  their  lessons  prepared.  In 
some  of  the  Denver  schools  this  plan  is  used  to  equalize 
the  work  of  the  dull  and  bright  pupils  in  a  grade.  A  few 
books  are  kept  in  the  room,  and  pupils  may  read  or  study 
along  the  line  of  their  choice,  even  during  the  time  of  the 
recitation,  providing  they  hold  themselves  in  readiness 
to  be  called  upon  at  any  time  to  answer  a  question  in 
the  recitation  that  other  members  of  the  class  cannot 
answer.  If  they  are  unable  to  answer  the  question,  they 
lose  their  privilege  until  they  prove  themselves  again  in 
the  recitation.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  large  library 
in  order  to  carry  out  this  plan.  One  book  on  the  teacher's 
desk  is  enough  to  start  it  in  a  school  and  furnish  profitable 
employment  for  a  bright  pupil  and  save  a  teacher  trouble 
and  worry. 

Extended  Use  of  Library.  —  The  library  movement  is 
not  selfish  in  its  spirit,  but  rather  philanthropic.  The  use 
of  a  small  library  in  a  district  school  shauld  not  be  con- 
fined to  the  school  alone,  but  should  extend  to  all  the 


132  The  Rural  School 

district  whenever  and  wherever  there  is  opportunity. 
As  the  hbrary  grows,  the  needs  of  the  patrons  and  tax- 
payers should  be  recognized  in  the  selection  of  books  and 
magazines.  The  school  should  strive  to  uplift  the  com- 
munity, and  the  library  may  be  its  most  potent  instrument. 
The  school  library  might  be  the  medium  of  exchange  for 
farmers'  bulletins,  papers,  and  books  on  farming,  poultry 
raising,  dairying,  household  economy,  home  sanitation, 
and  so  on. 

Librarian.  —  While  school  is  in  session  the  teacher 
should  act  as  librarian,  during  vacation  the  clerk  or 
some  other  member  of  the  board.  A  strict  account  should 
be  kept  of  every  book  that  goes  out  of  the  room.  Books 
should  be  returned  at  the  end  of  two  weeks  or  renewed, 
and  due  appreciation  and  regard  for  the  books  must  be 
required  of  all.  Nothing  destroys  the  usefulness  of  a 
library  sooner  than  to  allow  the  books  to  be  misused. 
Children  should  early  be  taught  to  love  and  care  for 
a  good  book. 

SUGGESTED   PLAN   OF   ORGANIZATION  FOR  SMALL 
SCHOOL  LIBRARY 
(One  hundred  volumes  or  less) 

Compiled  by  Willis  H.  Kerr,  Librarian,  Kansas  State 
Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kansas 

Minimum  organization: 

A.  Permanent  record  book  (called  Accession  book). 

B.  Property  stamp. 

C.  Record  of  issue. 

A.  Permanent  Record  of  all  hooks  in  the  library: 

Headings  extend  over  two  opposite  pages,  thus: 

(Left-hand  page) 

No.         Date        Vol.         Author         Title 

(Right-hand  page) 

Place     Publisher     Year     Source      Cost      Remarks 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  133 

Such  a  book  may  be  purchased  aheady  ruled  from 

Library  Bureau,  37  S.  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago,  111.  Ask 

for     Condensed     Accession     Book     No.      1059,  price 
$1.10  postpaid. 

Explanation  of  above  headings: 

1.  No.  —  Lines  numbered  consecutively  1,  2,  3,  etc. 

2.  Date  —  Date  of  invoice. 

3.  Vol.  —  Give  volume  number  if  a  work  is  in  more 
than  one  volume.  Never  enter  more  than  one  volume 
on  a  line. 

4.  Author  —  Last  name,  followed  by  initials. 

5.  Title  — Short  title. 

6.  Place  —  City  where  published. 

7.  Publisher  —  First  company  mentioned  on  title 
page.    For  example:   Ginn,  Macmillan,  Scribner,  Wiley. 

8.  Year  —  Date  given  at  bottom  of  title  page.  If 
none,  use  last  copyright  date,  given  on  back  of  title  page. 

9.  Source  —  Bookseller  from  whom  purchased,  or 
name  of  donor. 

10.  Cost  —  Actual  cost  to  school.  If  a  gift,  mark  "  g  " 
in  this  column. 

11.  Remarks  —  Used  chiefly  to  show  when  book  is 
worn  out,  lost,  withdrawn  for  contagion,  etc. 

12.  In  accession  books  on  the  market,  other  headings 
are  given  and  should  be  used  by  librarians  of  larger 
libraries. 

As  soon  as  books  are  received,  enter  each  on  a  line 
of  the  accession  book,  and  put  the  number  of  the  line 
(accession  number)  in  the  volume  received,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  first  right-hand  page  after  title  page;  write 
it  in  bold  clear  figures  with  ink.  This  number  is  called 
the  accession  number  of  the  book. 

B.   Property  mark: 

This  identifies  your  book  when  it  is  out  of  the  school- 
room, and  is  indispensable  even  in  the  smallest  library. 
A  rubber  stamp  is  the  cheapest  form.  A  good  style  is 
small  Gothic  lettering,  reading  thus,  for  example: 


134 


The  Rural  School 


Oak  Hill  School  Library 

Clay  County,  Kansas 
District  37.  No.  

Rubber  stamps  may  be  secured  from  any  dealer  in  rubber 
stamps  at  a  cost  of  forty  or  fifty  cents. 

Stamp  the  title  page  of  every  volume,  the  inside  of  the 
front  cover,  and  also  a  certain  arbitrary  page  (say,  21) 
of  each  volume. 

Inventory,  or  take  stock  of  the  books  each  autumn 
when  school  opens.  With  the  accession  book  in  hand,  go 
carefully  through  the  shelves  and  note  in  the  Remarks 

column,    "  Not   found,    Sept.   ,"   for   every  volume 

missing.  (Use  pencil  for  these  remarks,  erasing  note 
when  book  is  found.)  Make  list  of  missing  volumes  for 
your  own  record,  and  report  it  to  the  School  Board. 

C.   Record  of  Issue: 

Have  on  your  desk  slips  of  paper  about  3  by  5  inches 
in  size,  and  for  each  book  given  out  write  the  accession 
number,  the  name  of  the  person  who  takes  it  home,  and 
the  date.  Keep  these  slips  in  an  envelope  marked  "  Books 
out."  When  a  book  is  brought  back,  find  and  destroy 
the  sHp.  Insist  that  all  books  be  returned  before  last 
day  of  school. 

This  form  of  slip  is  suggested  as  about  the  simplest 
that  can  be  devised.  If  these  are  kept  alphabetically 
arranged  any  name  may  easily  be  found.  By  twisting 
the  cards  one  way  the  number  of  a  book  may  be  seen,  by 
twisting  them  the  other  way,  the  dates  will  appear  and 
books  due  will  be  found. 


No. 

3G5. 

Snyder,  Walter. 

11/27/12.     Date. 

The  Library  and  Its  Uses  135 

The  following  list  is  only  suggestive  of  the  different 
classes  of  books  which  are  suited  for  a  rural  school  li- 
brary. When  this  list  is  exhausted  and  the  library  has 
grown  beyond  the  Hmits  of  a  small  rural  school  library, 
other  sources  of  information  should  be  sought  regarding 
selection  of  books  and  organization. 

A   WORKING   LIBRARY  FOR   COUNTRY   SCHOOLS 

Compiled    by    Miss    G.  M.    Leaf,  Reference    Librarian, 
Kansas  State  Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kansas 

(The  grades  for  which  each  book  is  suitable  are  in- 
dicated.) 

Reference  Books 

Adams,  C.  C,  Textbook  of  Commercial  Geography. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  $L30. 

Appleton's  Encyclopedia.  6  vols.  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
$18.00.    (May  be  bought  of  dealers  for  $9.75.) 

Gayley,  C.  M.,  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature, 
Revised.    Ginn  &  Co.,  $L50. 

New  Family  Atlas  of  the  World.  Rand,  McNally  &  Co., 
$L00. 

Webster's  Collegiate  Dictionary.  G.  &  C.  Merriam  Co., 
$3.00. 

Bible  Stories 

Bible  for  Young  People;  arranged  from  the  King 
James  version  by  Mrs.  J.  B.  Gilder.  New  ed.  Century 
Co.,  $L50.     (4-6.) 

Bunyan,  Pilgrim's  Progress.  (Riverside  sch.  ed.) 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  60c.    (7-8.) 


136  The  Rural  School 

Heermans,  Stories  from  the  Hebrew.  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  42c.    (4-5.) 

Proudfoot,  Child's  Tales.  A.  Flanagan  &  Co.,  75c. 
(3-5.) 

Easy  Reading  for  the  Youngest  Readers 

Andersen,  Fairy  Tales,  ed.  by  Turpin.  Small,  May- 
nard  &  Co.,  40c. 

Baldwin,  Fairy  Stories  and  Fables.  American  Book  Co., 
35c. 

Bass,  Nature  Stories  for  Young  Readers.  2  vols.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  70c. 

Grimm  and  Grimm,  Fairy  Tales,  ed.  by  Wiltse.  2 
vols.     Ginn  &  Co.,  70c. 

Grover,  Overall  Boys.    Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  38c. 

Grover,  Sunbonnet  Babies*  Primer.  Rand,  McNally  & 
Co.,  40c. 

Lindsay,  Mother  Stories.    Milton  Bradley  Co.,  $1.00. 

Mickens  and  Robinson,  The  Mother  Goose  Reader. 
SUver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  36c. 

O'Shea,  Six  Nursery  Classics.  (Home  and  School 
Library.)      D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  20c. 

Perrault,  Tales  of  Mother  Goose,  tr.  by  Welsh.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  20c. 

Potter,  Beatrix,  The  Tale  of  Peter  Rabbit.  Frederick 
Warne  &  Co.,  50c. 

Progressive  Road  to  Reading,  Book  1 .  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  32c. 

Progressive  Road  to  Reading,  Book  2.  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  40c. 

Scudder,  H.  E.  cd..  Book  of  Fables  and  Folk  Stories. 
(Riverside  Literature  Series.)  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
40c. 

Serl,  In  Fable  Land.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  45c. 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  137 

Myths,  Legends,  and  Fairy  Tales 

Baldwin,  Story  of  Siegfried  (Heroes  of  Olden  Times). 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.50.     (5-7.) 

Brown,  In  the  Days  of  Giants:  a  Book  of  Norse  Myths. 
(Riverside  Literature  Series.)  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
50c.    (4-5.) 

Hawthorne,  Wonder  Book  and  Tanglewood  Tales. 
(Riverside  Literature  Series.)  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
40c.     (6-9.) 

Pyle,  Some  Merry  Adventures  of  Rohin  Hood.  (School 
Readings.)    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  50c.     (6-8.) 

Ruskin,  King  of  the  Golden  River.  Rand,  McNally  &  Co., 
25c.    (4-6.) 

Zitkala-Sa,  Old  Indian  Legends.  Ginn  &  Co.,  50c. 
(5-7.) 

Nature 

Andrews,  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  her  Children. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  50c.    (3-5.) 

Brown,  Plant  Baby.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  48c.    (4.) 

Burroughs,  Birds  and  Bees.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
60c.    (7-8.) 

Dana,  Plants  and  Their  Children.  American  Book  Co., 
65c.    (4-5.) 

Kirby,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  Aunt  Martha's  Corner 
Cupboard.    Educational  Publishing  Co.,  40c.    (3-5.) 

Miller,  First  Book  of  Birds.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.. 
60c.     (5-8.) 

Poulsson,  In  the  Child's  World.  Milton  Bradley  Co., 
$2.00.    (1-3.) 

Poulsson,  Through  the  Farm  Yard  Gate.  Lothrop,  Lee 
&  Shepard  Co.,  $1.25.    (1-2.) 


138  The  Rural  School 

Saunders,  Beautiful  Joe.  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society,  60c.     (4-6.) 

Serl,  In  the  Animal  World.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co., 
50c.  (4-6.) 

Willis  and  Farmer,  Month  by  Month.  3  vols.  Kellogg, 
$4.00. 

Agriculture 

Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  Agriculture  for  Beginners. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  75c. 

Duncan,  Evans  and  Duncan,  Farm  Life  Readers. 
Bks.  4  &  5.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  45  &  50c. 

Goodrich,  O.  L.,  First  Book  of  Farming.  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,  $1.00. 

Jackson  and  Daugherty,  Agriculture  through  Labora- 
tory and  School  Garden.    Orange  Judd  Co.,  $1.50. 

Kansas  Agricultural  College,  Bulletins. 

Kern,  Among  Country  Schools.    Ginn  &  Co.,  $1.25. 

King,  Textbook  of  the  Physics  of  Agriculture.  F.  H. 
King,  $1.75. 

McKeever,  Farm  Boys  and  Girls.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
$1.35. 

Sargent,  Corn  Plants,  their  Uses  and  Ways  of  Life. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  75c. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletins. 

Amusements  and  Occupations 

Adams,  Harper's  Indoor  Book  for  Boys.  Harper  &  Bros., 
$1.75.     (7-8.) 

Adams,  Harper's  Outdoor  Book  for  Boys.  Harper  & 
Bros.,  $1.75.     (7-8.) 

Alexander,  Songs  We  Like  to  Sing.  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  35c.    (7-8.) 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  139 

Bacon,  Songs  That  Every  Child  Should  Know.  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.,  90c.    (7-8.) 

Baker,  Boy's  Book  of  Inventions.  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Co.,  $2.00.    (7-9.) 

Barnard,  Tools  and  Machines.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co., 
60c.     (5-6.) 

Bancroft,  Games  for  Playgrounds,  Home  and  School. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.50.     (6-7.) 

Benton,  C.  F.,  pseud.,  Saturday  Mornings.  Dana  Estes 
&  Co.,  75c.    (5-7.) 

Literature 

Lamb,  Charles  and  Mary,  Tales  from  Shakespeare. 
(Riverside  Literature  Series.)  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
50c.     (6-8.) 

Norton,  Heart  of  Oak  Books.  Vols.  1-2.  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  60c.     (1-2.) 

Stevenson,  Child's  Garden  of  Verses.  Rand,  McNally  & 
Co.,  50c.     (2-4.) 

Wiggin  and  Smith,  Posy  Ring.  McClure  Co.,  $1.25. 
(5-6.) 

Geography  Aids 

Andrews,  Jane,  Seven  Little  Sisters.  Ginn  &  Co.,  50c. 
(2-4.) 

Ayrton,  Child  Life  in  Japan.  (Home  and  School 
Classics.)    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  20c.     (5-6.) 

Carpenter,  Geographical  Readers.  6  vols.  American 
Book  Co.,  60c  each.     (5-8.) 

Africa,  Asia,  Australia,  Europe,  North  America,  South 
America. 

Carroll,  Around  the  World  Series.  5  vols.  Silver,  Bur- 
dett &  Co.,  each  36c.     (1-6.) 


140  The  Rural  School 

Chamberlain,   How    We   Travel.      (Home   and   World 
Series.)    The  Macmillan  Co.,  40c.    (4-6.) 

Chance,  Little  Folks  of  Many  Lands.    Ginn  &  Co.,  50c. 
(1-2.) 

Dunton,  World  and  Its  People  Series.    12  vols.    Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co.,  36  to  60c.     (2-8.) 

Little  Journeys,  ed.  by  M.  M.  George.     10  vols.     A. 
Flanagan  Co.,  50c  each. 

Alaska  and  Canada;  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico;  France  and 
Switzerland;  Germany;  Holland  and  Belgium;  Mexico 
and  Central  America;    Norway  and  Sweden;   Russia 
and  Austria;   Turkey;   The  Balkans  and  Greece. 
Long,  Home  Geography.    American  Book  Co.,  25c. 
Our  Little  Cousin  Series.    11  vols.    L.  C.  Page  &  Co., 
60c  each.     (3-4.) 

Alaska;   Australia;  Chinese;  Cuban;  Greek;  German; 
Italian;   Panama;   Philippines;   Spanish;   Swedish. 
Peeps  at  Many  Lands.     16  vols.     The  Macmillan  Co., 
50c  each.    (8-9.) 

Burma;  China;   Egypt;    England;  Germany;  Greece; 
Holland;    Scotland;    Switzerland;    Holy  Land;    Ice- 
land; India;  Italy;  Japan;  Morocco;  Norway. 
Shaw,   Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands. 
(Eclectic  Readings.)     American  Book  Co.,  30c.     (3-4.) 
Starr,  Strange  Peoples.     (Ethno-geographical  Readers.) 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  40c.     (5-7.) 


History  and  Biography 

Andrews,  A  Perfect  Tribute.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
50c.    (6-8.) 

Baldwin,  Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold.  (Eclectic  Read- 
ings.)   American  Book  Co.,  35c.    (3-5.) 


The  Library  and  Its  Uses  141 

Blaisdell  and  Ball,  Hero  Stories  from  American  History. 
Giim  &  Co.,  50c.     (5-7.) 

Eggleston,  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure. 
(Eclectic  Readings.)     American  Book  Co.,  50c.     (3-5.) 

Eggleston,  Stories  of  Great  Americans  for  Little  Ameri- 
cans.   American  Book  Co.,  40c.     (3-5.) 

Hazard,  Indians  and  Pioneers.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co., 
45c.     (5-6.) 

Mowry,  Hero  Series.  American  Pioneers,  65c  (5-7); 
American  Heroes  and  Heroism,  60c  (5-6).  Silver,  Bur- 
dett &  Co., 

Newell,  Indian  Stories.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  45c. 
(5-6.) 

Starr,  American  Indians.  (Ethno.-geog.  Readers.) 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  45c.     (5-8.) 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Everyday  Life  in  the  Colonies 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  35c.    (4-6.) 

Tappan,  European  Hero  Stories.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
65c.     (6-8.) 

Stories 

Alcott,  Little  Women.  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  $1.50. 
(5-7.) 

Defoe,  Robinson  Crusoe.  (Riverside  School  Library.) 
Houghton  Mifflm  Co.,  60c.    (6-8.) 

Dodge,  Ha7is  Brinker.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  75c. 
(5-8.) 

Eggleston,  Hoosier  School-Boy.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
60c.     (6-8.) 

Hale,  Man  without  a  Country.  (National  edition.) 
Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  35c.    (6-8.) 

Spyri,  Heidi.  (Home  and  School  Library.)  Ginn  &  Co., 
40c.     (4-5.) 


142  The  Rural  School 

Swift,  Gulliver's  Travels  into  Several  Remote  Regions 
of  the  World.  (Home  and  School  Classics.)  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  30c.    (6-8.) 

Westover,  Bushy.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  75c.    (6-7.) 

Wiggin,  Bird's  Christmas  Carol.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
50c.    (5-8.) 

Wyss,  Sioiss  Family  Robinson.  (Home  and  School  Li- 
brary.)   Ginn  &  Co.,  45c.     (5-7.) 

Zollinger,  Widow  O'Callaghan's  Boys.  A.  C.  McClurg  & 
Co.,  $1.25. 

REFERENCES 

Bulletins  may  be  obtained  from  the  library  commis- 
sions of  the  different  states  or  from  the  state  department 
of  education.  These  often  contain  graded  lists  of  books 
from  which  selections  may  be  made;  they  also  give  help- 
ful hints  about  the  choice,  care,  and  use  of  books.  The 
following  are  good: 

Brown  and  Webster,  Buying  Lists  of  Books  for  Small 
Libraries.  1913.  American  Library  Association  Pub- 
lishing Board,  78  E.  Washington  St.,  Chicago,  111.,  15c. 

Ely,  Library  Aids  for  Teachers,  State  Normal  School, 
Duluth,  Minn.,  15c. 

New  York  Education  Department,  Division  of  School 
Libraries.  An  annotated,  graded,  and  classified  list  of 
books  suitable  for  elementary  school  libraries  (Bulletin, 
Feb.,  1912),  Albany,  N.  Y. 

Walter  (of  N.  Y.  State  Library),  The  Care  of  School 
Libraries.  Printed  by  Michigan  State  Board  of 
Library  Commissioners,  Lansing,  Mich. 


Chapter    XIV 
SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT 

Its  Importance.  —  If  it  were  asked,  ''  In  what  espe- 
cially do  teachers  fail?  "  the  answer  would  be,  "  In  school 
government."  It  may  very  easily  be  detected,  for  the 
children  report  it  to  their  parents,  the  board  members 
soon  find  it  out,  and  it  is  apparent  to  the  superintendent 
the  moment  he  steps  into  the  room.  The  teacher  may  be 
making  a  failure  of  instruction,  but  if  he  keeps  "  good 
order  "  the  children  cannot  determine  whether  the  in- 
struction is  good,  bad,  or  indifferent,  and  the  superin- 
tendent may  not,  in  his  short  visit,  at  once  discover  that 
the  teaching  is  of  poor  quality. 

Thus  it  is  that  school  government  becomes  a  very  im- 
portant subject  to  every  teacher.  If  a  teacher  camiot 
govern  a  school  he  must  move  on  from  place  to  place, 
not  rising  in  the  profession  but  merely  eking  out  an  ex- 
istence. Then,  too,  quiet  and  order  are  very  important 
features  of  the  school  itself.  A  schoolroom  should  be 
a  place  for  study,  and  a  pupil  has  a  right  to  a  place 
where  he  can  study  without  serious  interruption.  Then 
again,  boys  and  girls  need  to  learn  at  school  what  many 
of  them  do  not  learn  at  home,  viz.,  to  be  obedient  to 
law.  They  need  to  learn  obedience,  system,  punctual- 
ity, orderliness,  and  respect  to  superiors,  and  many  of 
them  will  learn  this,  if  at  all,  only  in  a  well-governed 
school. 

143 


144  The  Rural  School 

AIDS  TO  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT 

Since  school  government  is  of  such  importance,  if  the 
State  Normal  School  could  instruct  the  teachers  of  its 
state  how  to  govern  successfully,  it  would  pay  to  dismiss 
the  schools  for  a  year  and  have  all  the  teachers  study  school 
government.  But  the  truth  is,  each  teacher  must  govern 
his  school  in  his  own  way,  and  the  school  which  he  teaches 
may  require  quite  a  different  form  of  government  from 
the  school  in  an  adjoining  district.  A  teacher's  person- 
ality must  enter  into  all  his  school  work,  and  especially 
into  his  school  government. 

While  it  may  not  be  possible  to  tell  just  how  to  govern 
a  school,  it  is  hoped  that  some  things  may  be  said  that 
will  set  teachers  to  thinking,  and  that  will  help  them 
better  to  help  themselves. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  best  governed  school  is  the 
one  that  is  least  governed.  It  is  hoped  that  the  few  sug- 
gestions which  are  given  in  this  chapter  will  aid  the  young 
teacher  in  making  the  school  self-governing. 

Plans  for  Each  Day  Necessary.  —  If  the  teacher  will 
plan  his  work  from  day  to  day  and  know  just  what  he 
expects  to  do  and  how  he  is  to  do  it,  it  will  greatly  aid  him 
in  the  management  of  his  school.  Something  may  arise 
to  hinder  what  he  has  outlined  tor  the  day,  but  it  will 
be  much  easier  to  make  some  minor  changes  in  his  plans 
than  to  think  them  out  as  the  work  of  the  school 
progresses. 

Lessons  Well  Studied. —  Closely  allied  to  the  first 
suggestion,  if  not  a  part  of  it,  is  preparation  of  the  lessons 
for  the  day.  They  should  be  well  planned  and  well 
studied.  Many  a  school  has  become  disorderly  while  the 
teacher  was  vainly  trying  to  work  a  probU^m  for  the  class 
in  arithmetic,  or  while  he  studied  out  the  analysis  of  a 


School  Government  145 

difficult  sentence  that  he  did  not  know  was  in  the  lesson. 
Disrespect  is  almost  always  engendered  for  the  teacher 
who  does  not  know.  Sham  knowing  will  not  suffice;  it 
is  better  to  say,  "  I  do  not  know,"  but  this  should  not  be 
said  too  often. 

Definiteness  in  Assignments  and  Requirements.  — 
Sometimes  a  lesson  is  not  learned  because  the  pupils  do 
not  know  just  what  they  are  expected  to  do.  "  Take 
the  next  page  "  can  seldom  be  deemed  an  assignment. 
Especially  Avith  small  pupils  the  teacher  should  be  very 
definite  about  what  is  to  be  learned  and  how  to  study  it. 
This  means  more  time  for  this  part  of  the  work,  but  it 
means  better  work  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  and  less 
annoyance  for  the  teacher  while  hearing  another  class. 
Then,  too,  the  pupils  do  not  know  just  what  is  expected 
of  them  in  passing  to  and  from  class,  or  what  is  meant  by 
some  regulation  for  the  play  at  recess  and  noons.  The 
pupils  sometimes  try  to  take  advantage  of  an  ambiguous 
regulation,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  following:  Some  boys 
and  girls  were  accustomed  to  go  to  one  of  two  hills  to 
coast  during  intermission,  and  were  always  late.  The 
teacher  told  them  that  they  should  not  go  to  that  hill 
any  more,  for  it  made  them  late  getting  in.  They  did  not 
go  to  that  one,  but  went  to  the  farther  one  and  were  late 
as  usual. 

Showing  Reasonableness  of  Requirements.  —  A  young 
boy  is  more  willing  to  obey  when  he  knows  the  reason 
why.  It  is  a  good  thing  for  the  teacher  to  explain  the 
reasonableness  of  regulations,  for  it  will  restrain  him  from 
making  arbitrary  rules.  It  also  makes  the  pupils  feel 
that  they  are  consulted  in  affairs  of  the  school,  and,  to 
some  extent,  are  cooperating  in  its  management. 

Keeping  Every  one  Busy.  —  If  one  can  ke(^p  the  scTiool 
busy,  he  will  not  need  to  do  much  governing.     This  is 


146  The  Rural  School 

where  our  modern  schools  are  an  improvement  over  the 
old-time  school,  where  the  rod  was  such  an  important 
factor.  One  good  way  to  keep  everybody  busy  is  to  make 
out  a  program  of  studies  for  each  class;  then  pupil  and 
teacher  both  know  just  what  is  to  be  done.  When  this 
is  well  miderstood,  before  beginning  a  recitation,  the 
teacher  should  see  that  each  one  is  busy  at  his  own  task. 

It  will  pay  to  become  enthusiastic  about  work.  Let 
the  teacher  work  himself,  and  get  others  to  work  from 
the  very  first  hour  of  the  first  day  to  the  last  hour  of  the 
last  day  of  school.  This  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  good  school 
teaching.    Use  it  for  all  it  is  worth. 

Making  Use  of  School  Games  and  Plays.  —  There  is  u, 
certain  amount  of  motor  energy  that  becomes  stored  up 
in  the  body  during  the  study  periods  that  must  be  worked 
off.  If  confined  too  long,  like  dammed-up  water,  it  will 
finally  break  its  bounds.  Good,  vigorous  plays  and  games 
are  helpful  for  every  school,  and  it  will  pay  the  teacher 
to  be  able  to  step  in  and  give  suggestions  about  new  games 
when  the  old  ones  are  worn  out  or  when  the  rivalry  be- 
comes too  strenuous.  Vigorous  play,  outdoors,  often 
saves  annopng  tricks  during  school  hours.  The  teacher's 
interest  in  the  school  play  often  elicits  the  pupils'  coopera- 
tion in  the  work  of  the  schoolroom. 

But  never  let  disorder  reign  in  the  house,  either  at  recess 
or  during  school  time.  Unrestrained  conduct  in  the  house 
at  recess  leads  to  noise  and  confusion  during  the  school 
period.  Play  in  the  house  during  stormy  weather  should 
be  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  schoolroom 
should  be  sacred  to  study. 

Personality  of  the  Teacher.  —  Of  all  the  aids  to  school 
government  mentioned  above,  none  is  so  important  and 
so  effective  as  the  personality  of  the  teacher.  To  com- 
mand  and  receive  obedience  seems  almost  natural  to 


School  Government  147 

some;  to  others  this  power  is  obtained  only  with  great 
effort.  For  one,  his  very  presence  seems  to  command 
respect  and  obedience;  for  another,  even  his  looks  seem 
to  be  against  him  and  to  cause  disrespect.  The  former 
class  seem  to  be  a  favored  few,  but  if  what  we  learned  in  a 
previous  chapter  be  true,  then  each  one  can  keep  his 
personality  at  its  best  and  improve  it  as  time  goes  on. 
If  we  would  care  for  our  health,  we  must  keep  our  body 
at  its  best;  if  we  would  add  something  new  and  enliven- 
ing to  our  mental  store,  if  we  would  cultivate  our  moral 
natures,  we  must  live  up  to  the  best  that  is  in  us;  in 
other  words,  if  we  would  be  our  best  in  our  three-fold 
nature,  our  personality  would  grow  and  we  would  com- 
mand the  respect  of  those  with  whom  we  associate.  If 
the  teacher's  personality  is  what  it  ought  to  be,  it  will 
show  itself  in  neatness  of  dress,  and  in  personal  appear- 
ance. The  voice  should  be  cultivated;  a  sharp,  rasping, 
high-keyed  voice  will  muierve  a  whole  school  and  will 
lead  to  disorder  and  noise. 

THE  INFLICTION  OF  PUNISHMENTS 

A  Time  for  Action.  —  All  the  above  suggestions  may  be 
followed  out  almost  religiously,  and  yet  in  some  schools 
and  under  some  conditions  things  will  not  go  right.  There 
will  come  a  time  when  something  must  be  done.  This 
may  be  the  making  of  a  rule  and  the  infliction  of  the  pen- 
alty; or  it  may  be  the  infliction  of  corporal  punish- 
ment. Here  are  found  two  classes  of  teachers:  One 
becomes  frightened,  begins  to  tremble  and  never  reaches 
the  point  of  actually  inflicting  punishment;  the  other  is 
in  a  hurry  and  reaches  the  punishment  before  it  is  neces- 
sary. The  latter  are  the  ones  who  whip  on  slight  provo- 
cation, forgetting  the  principle  that  "  the  least  punish- 


148  The  Rural  School 

ment  that  will  accomplish  the  end  is  the  right  punish- 
ment." Punishments  of  all  kinds  should  be  incentives 
of  last  resort,  and  especially  should  this  be  true  in  the 
case  of  corporal  punishment. 

The  End  of  Discipline,  Character.  —  In  all  school 
govermnent,  in  all  discipline,  m  all  punishment,  the 
teacher  should  keep  in  mind  that  it  is  for  the  good  of  the 
pupil.  It  is  not  for  the  school,  nor  for  the  community, 
nor  for  the  state,  but  for  the  individual  pupil.  He  is 
interested  in  building  character,  and  if  he  can  develop 
wholesome  moral  characters  in  his  pupils,  all  these  other 
things  will  take  care  of  themselves.  If  he  can  whip  a 
boy  to  make  him  better  and  is  able  to  show  him  that  this 
is  the  reason  for  it,  he  will  probably  make  a  right  use  of 
corporal  punishment.  If,  however,  he  whips  him  to 
vindicate  himself,  or  even  to  set  an  example  for  the  rest 
of  the  school,  he  will  fail.  There  are  other  secondary  ob- 
jects, but  the  principal  end  of  school  govermnent  is 
development  of  character. 

Continuous  Discipline.  —  School  government  should  be 
continuous,  i.  e.,  it  should  be  the  same  to-day  that  it 
was  yesterday.  It  should  not  depend  on  the  teacher's 
digestion  nor  the  condition  of  the  weather,  but  should  be 
calm  and  firm  from  morning  until  night,  from  one  week 
to  the  next.  A  boy  unintentionally  paid  a  high  compli- 
ment to  his  teacher  when  he  said,  "  You  would  do  what 
you  promised  even  if  the  world  came  to  an  end."  The 
teacher  whose  discipline  is  even,  though  strict,  will  in 
the  end  be  respected  by  his  pupils;  indeed,  pupils  as  a  rule 
believe  in  strict  discipline  and  like  it  providing  it  is 
"  fair."  The  teacher  who  can  maintain  an  even  temper 
and  a  high  average  of  self-control  on  his  part  and  on  the 
part  of  his  pupils,  is  the  teacher  who  is,  to  that  degree, 
successful  in  school  government. 


School  Government  149 

CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT  AS  VIEWED  BY  THE  COURTS 

As  many  young  teachers  have  not  been  instructed  in 
school  law  regarding  corporal  punishment  and  do  not 
know  the  attitude  of  the  courts  toward  those  who  inflict 
this  form  of  punishment,  it  might  not  be  out  of  place  to 
introduce  a  brief  discussion  of  its  legal  aspect.  The 
following  paragraphs  are  from  the  pen  of  Professor  L.  A. 
Parke,  formerly  a  practicing  attorney,  now  head  of  the 
department  of  commerce  of  the  Kansas  State  Normal 
School,  who  has  made  a  thorough  study  of  court  decisions 
relative  to  school  law. 

"  This  brief  discussion  of  corporal  punishment  is  not  a 
consideration  of  it  from  a  pedagogical  view  point,  but 
is  merely  a  statement  in  very  condensed  form  of  what 
the  courts  have  decided.  Many  cases  have  been  carried 
up  to  the  courts  of  last  resort  in  the  different  states,  thus 
showing  that  corporal  punishment  in  the  schools  has 
been  a  prolific  source  of  litigation.  Parents  are  quick 
to  resent  what  they  consider  any  unjust  or  unduly  severe 
chastisement  of  their  children  by  a  teacher,  and  courts 
and  juries  scan  closely  the  circumstances  attending  its 
infliction  and  the  spirit  and  motive  of  the  teacher  who 
inflicts  it. 

Right  to  Inflict.  —  "  The  courts,  however,  with  entire 
unanimity  have  affirmed  the  right  of  the  teacher  to  ad- 
minister corporal  punishment  unless  a  statute  of  the 
state  or  a  regulation  of  the  school  board  forbids  it,  but 
there  has  been  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  degree 
of  severity  that  may  be  used. 

Degree  of  Severity.  —  "  The  earlier  cases  permitted  a 
more  severe  chastisement  than  later  cases  uphold.  The 
teacher  must  exercise  his  authority  with  discretion  and 
moderation.    When,  in  the  judgment  of  reasonable  men, 


150  The  Rural  School 

the  punishment  is  clearly  immoderate  or  excessive,  a  jury 
will  be  justified  in  finding  the  teacher  guilty  of  assault 
and  battery.  In  determining  what  is  a  reasonable  degree 
of  punishment,  the  circumstances  attending  the  offence 
—  the  age,  size,  strength,  and  sex  of  the  offender,  his  ap- 
parent motive,  the  nature  of  the  offence,  the  influence  of 
his  example  on  others,  his  attitude  towards  his  teacher 
and  his  past  conduct  —  may  all  be  considered.  The  ob- 
duracy of  a  pupil  under  punishment  may  justify  severity, 
but  it  does  not  follow  that  a  teacher  would  be  justified 
in  continuing  the  punishment  until  the  pupil  should  be 
subdued.  The  obduracy  of  the  pupil  would  not  warrant 
immoderate  punishment.  All  necessary  force  may  be 
used  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  pupil  to  reason- 
able punishment  or  to  the  proper  commands  of  the 
teacher,  but  no  unnecessary  or  disproportionate  force  or 
violence  may  be  employed. 

Attitude  of  the  Teacher.  —  "  The  bearing  of  the  teacher 
is  an  important  factor  in  determining  whether  the  pun- 
ishment is  justified  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Punishment 
must  not  be  inflicted  in  anger  or  insolence,  but  should  be 
given  in  a  kind  and  reasonable  spirit,  and  one  court  adds, 
*  accompanied  with  that  affectionate  moral  suasion  so 
eminently  due  from  one  placed  by  the  law  loco  parentis, 
the  sacred  relation  of  parents.'  " 

PLACING  PUPILS  ON  THEIR  HONOR 

When  you  are  master  of  the  situation,  you  can  allow  a 
great  many  privileges  that  otherwise  you  would  deny. 
By  being  master  of  the  situation  is  meant  that  you  know 
your  school  and  feel  confidence  in  yourself  that  you  can 
restrain  any  abuse  of  a  privilege,  or  are  sure  that  you 
can  prevent  your  school  from  getting  away  from  you,  or, 


School  Government  151 

if  it  does  get  a  start,  that  you  can  easily  bring  it  back 
to  its  original  behavior.  This  is  not  an  admonition  to 
young  teachers,  but  to  those  who  have  had  experience  and 
know  their  ground.  Children  like  to  be  free,  so  does  the 
teacher;  then  let  the  boys  and  girls  be  put  upon  their 
honor  and  be  given  an  opportunity  to  develop  character. 
Place  confidence  in  your  pupils.  As  soon  as  boys  or 
girls  know  the  meaning  of  honor  they  ought  to  have  an 
opportunity  to  exercise  honor,  and  the  teacher  ought  to 
trust  them  so  far  as  they  are  able  to  bear.  When  a  settle- 
ment has  been  made  with  a  pupil  and  he  has  promised 
to  do  right,  expect  him  to  do  right.  Do  not  watch  him 
from  the  corner  of  your  eyes,  and  expect  him  to  do  the 
same  thing  over  again,  but  trust  him,  and  you  may  not 
need  to  see  some  little  things  that  he  has  done,  especially 
if  he  is  making  an  honest  effort. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MOTOR  ACTIVITIES 

The  impressions  that  come  through  the  sensory  organ- 
ism tend  to  work  themselves  out  in  motor  activities  of 
appropriate  form.  For  example,  if  while  hungry  one  is 
passing  a  house  and  catches  the  appetizing  odor  of  frying 
ham,  the  chances  are  that  his  mouth  will  water;  the 
glands  have  been  set  to  work  and  the  saliva  begins  to 
flow  as  if  he  were  really  eating  the  meat.  This  experience 
may  lead  the  hungry  tramp  to  the  back  door  in  an 
attempt  to  get  some  of  the  meat  by  fair  means  or  foul. 
Again,  a  boy  looking  through  the  fence  at  a  patch  of  ripe 
watermelons  is  not  safe.  There  is  one  thing  open  for  him 
to  do  and  that  is  to  remove  himself  from  the  reach  of 
these  melons  or  he  will  be  over  the  fence.  Anger  contracts 
the  muscles,  while  grief  relaxes  them.  The  joyous  child 
is  inclined  to  dance  and  play;  the  sad  person  sits  demurely 


152  The  Rural  School 

in  one  place.  Fear  blanches  the  cheek,  while  shame  brings 
a  flush  of  blood  to  the  otherwise  pale  face. 

In  Tarbell's  "Teachers'  Guide  for  1908"  Henry 
Churchill  King  is  quoted  as  saying,  "  Positive  self-control 
means  that  we  are  to  heed  that  principle  which  the  psy- 
chologists call  impulsiveness  of  consciousness;  that  is, 
every  thought,  by  its  very  presence  in  the  mind,  tends  to 
pass  into  action,  and  will  do  so,  if  it  is  not  hindered  by  the 
presence  of  some  other  thought  leading  in  some  other 
direction.  I  regard  that  principle  of  very  great  importance 
in  all  our  moral  and  spiritual  life.  If  you  are  sitting  in 
the  parlor  of  a  friend,  while  you  are  waiting  for  him,  and 
there  is  an  open  letter  on  the  table,  and  you  are  not  think- 
ing particularly  of  what  you  are  doing  but  have  your  eye 
on  the  letter,  before  you  know  it  you  will  very  likely  put 
out  your  hand,  take  it  up  and  begin  to  read  it,  until 
you  recall  yourself  with  a  start.  The  single  idea,  un- 
checked by  any  other  for  the  moment,  was  present  in  the 
mind;   it  passed  into  action  almost  in  spite  of  you." 

Two  Methods  of  Inhibition.  —  The  phase  of  this  sub- 
ject that  interests  the  teacher  is  how  to  inhibit  those 
acts  that  are  detrimental  to  the  school  and  the  individual. 
There  are  two  ways  of  doing  this;  first,  by  negation,  and 
second,  by  substitution. 

Negation.  —  The  more  common  method  of  inhibiting 
evil  acts  is  by  negation.  This  is  where  the  teacher  or  one 
in  authority  says,  "  don't  "  or  "  you  must  not,"  or  some 
other  negative  command.  Mr.  Wilkinson,  ex-president 
of  the  Kansas  State  Normal  Schools,  used  to  tell  the  story 
about  a  little  boy,  who,  when  asked  at  school  what  his 
name  was,  replied,  "  Johmiy  Don't."  He  had  heard 
"  Johnny  don't  "  so  much  at  home  that  he  supposed  that 
that  was  his  name.  This  method  of  inhil)ition  by  ne- 
gation does  not  relieve  the  tendency  to  act  out  the  im- 


School  Government  153 

pulse;  it  only  seems  to  clam  it  up  for  the  time  being  with 
the  possibility,  if  not  probability,  that  it  will  break  forth 
more  vehemently  than  it  otherwise  would  have  done. 
Try  to  stop  a  crowd  of  girls  from  laughing  by  inhibiting 
by  negation  and  see  the  result.  The  best  way  is  to  let 
them  laugh  and  laugh  until  they  laugh  it  out. 

Punishment.  —  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  pain  will 
inhibit  certain  tendencies;  it  seems  to  relieve  the  tension 
or  inclination  and  ofttimes  effectually  inhibits. 

Substitution.  —  The  most  effectual  way  of  inhibiting 
is  by  substitution.  By  this  is  meant  the  replacing  of  the 
thought  by  a  thought  of  a  different  character,  or  by  letting 
the  impulse  work  out  in  a  form  that  will  not  be  harmful. 
Mr.  Keith  in  his  book  "  Elementary  Education  "  in  dis- 
cussing the  subject  of  discipline  gives  an  example  that 
illustrates  this  point.  A  grandfather  and  two  little  grand- 
sons were  in  a  railroad  station  one  day  with  other  passen- 
gers while  it  was  raining.  The  water  came  in  under  the 
door  and  crossed  the  floor  in  two  or  more  streams.  The 
little  fellows  were  playing  in  it  and  were  getting  their 
clothes  soiled.  No  threats  or  entreaties  that  the  grand- 
father could  make,  nor  appeals  that  "  Mamma  would 
feel  so  bad,  if  they  got  their  clothes  wet,"  were  of  any 
avail.  Finally  a  man  understanding  inhibition  by  sub- 
stitution suggested  that  they  walk  across  the  water  on 
their  heels,  and  headed  a  procession  of  three  around  the 
room  walking  through  the  water  on  heels.  This  satisfied 
the  boys  and  did  not  soil  their  clothes. 

The  only  true  way  then  to  inhibit  is  by  substitution. 
If  one  can  get  the  angry  man  to  think  about  something 
else,  he  will  cease  to  be  angry.  This  shows  the  philosophy 
of  the  old  adage,  "  When  angry,  count  one  hundred  be- 
fore you  speak."  Generally  by  that  time  the  person  will 
be  thinking  about  something  else.    If  the  laughing  girls 


154  The  Rural  School 

can  be  brought  to  think  about  something  serious,  they 
will  stop  laughing. 

Application  of  Principle  of  Substitution.  —  The  op- 
portunities of  inhibiting  by  substitution  in  school  govern- 
ment are  many.  One  of  the  hard  things  to  control  is 
snowballing.  This  may  often  be  regulated  by  allowing 
snow  "  fights  "  between  certain  pupils  and  on  certain 
parts  of  the  school  grounds,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  teacher  will  have  the  cooperation  of  the  pupils  in  pro- 
hibiting it  elsewhere.  All  that  go  into  the  battle  must  take 
what  comes,  and  not  run  to  the  house  for  protection. 

It  will  take  a  wise  head  to  find  substitutions  for  all  the 
impulses  that  will  arise  in  a  vigorous  school,  but  any 
teacher  knowing  the  principle  can  make  advantageous 
use  of  this  method  of  inhibition. 

THE  USE   OF  INCENTIVES 

By  incentives  are  meant  those  things  which  induce  de- 
sirable school  activity,  which  spur  a  pupil  on  to  put  for- 
ward his  best  effort.  For  example,  emulation  sometimes 
leads  pupils  to  thoughtful,  hard  study;  and  the  desire 
for  praise  from  teacher  or  parent  will  often  lead  to  good 
conduct  and  obedience. 

Characteristics  of  a  Good  Incentive.  —  In  the  first 
place  an  incentive  should  be  adapted  to  the  grade  of  the 
pupil.  A  good  incentive  for  the  primary  grade  may  not 
be  suited  to  the  higher  grades.  In  the  second  place,  a 
good  incentive  takes  account  of  effort  and  does  not  recog- 
nize results  alone.  Many  incentives  are  directed  toward 
results  only,  and  no  credit  is  given  to  the  person  who  has 
done  his  best,  but  has  failed  to  surpass  some  other.  There 
should  be  incentives  for  the  slow  plodders  and  the  com- 
mon workers;   for  there  are  so  many  of  them,  that  they 


School  Government  155 

far  outnumber  the  prize-winning  groups.  The  good 
incentive  should  be  continuous;  it  should  grow  in  at- 
tractiveness from  day  to  day  and  lead  the  pupil  to  ad- 
vance in  his  desire  to  conform  to  school  regulations. 
Finally  an  incentive  should  appeal  to  the  best  that  is 
in  the  pupil. 

Incentives  of  Last  Resort.  —  Under  this  head  are  clas- 
sified the  various  forms  of  punishment  and  the  use  of 
sarcasm  and  ridicule.  Such  measures  should  be  resorted 
to  only  after  all  higher  incentives  have  failed  and  should 
always  have  for  an  object  to  save  or  better  the  pupil. 

Incentives  Liable  to  Abuse.  —  There  are  certain  in- 
centives whose  degrees  of  usefulness  depend  largely  on 
how  they  are  used.  The  giving  of  prizes  is  an  example. 
The  objectionable  features  of  prize  giving  are  that  it  does 
not  take  account  of  effort  except  as  it  is  shown  in  results; 
that  it  is  not  a  continuous  incentive;  that  it  does  not 
develop  character;  that  it  is  inclined  to  make  the  re- 
ceiver of  the  prize  proud  and  selfish;  and  that  it  often 
leads  to  rivalry  and  envy.  However,  if  prizes  are  offered 
in  such  a  way  that  every  pupil  may  receive  one,  the  giving 
of  prizes  may  become  of  real  service  to  the  school.  For 
example,  if  certificates  of  perfect  attendance  are  offered 
to  all  who  are  neither  absent  nor  tardy,  every  one  is  given 
a  chance  to  receive  a  prize,  the  fact  that  one  is  given  a 
certificate  does  not  bar  another  from  receiving  the  same 
honor.  In  the  same  class  as  prizes,  come  grades  and 
merit  marks,  for  in  nature  they  are  prizes  open  to  all. 
The  principal  fault  in  the  use  of  grades  is  that  too  much 
stress  is  laid  upon  them.  In  trjdng  to  determine  into 
what  grade  a  pupil  should  go,  the  ultimate  question 
should  not  be  what  mark  did  he  get,  but  will  it  be  better 
for  the  child  to  take  this  work  over  again  or  should  he 
pass  on  to  the  next? 


156  The  Rural  School 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  all  the  time  that  grades  are 
simply  mechanical  estimates  made  by  the  teacher,  and 
that  no  system  of  grades  can  be  made  absolutely  accu- 
rate. Furthermore,  earnestness,  effort,  and  honesty  are 
things  that  are  hard  to  estimate  in  per  cents,  yet  they  are 
things  more  desirable  than  the  scholarship  which  we  often 
credit  with  a  high  grade. 

While  emulation  is  an  incentive  which  is  often  abused, 
still  we  need  to  measure  our  own  efforts  with  those  of  our 
fellows  to  accomplish  our  best  results.  In  school  work, 
something  of  a  contest  is  needed  to  bring  out  the  best 
efforts  of  the  pupils.  A  form  of  emulation  which  is  ap- 
plicable to  small  schools  is  where  a  pupil  competes  with 
himself.  He  compares  his  penmanship  of  to-day  with 
that  of  two  weeks  ago;  he  finds  that  in  the  same  time  he 
can  work  ten  examples  where  last  week  he  could  do  only 
five  of  the  same  grade;  he  has  been  able  to  go  a  whole 
week  without  missing  a  word,  etc.  Thus,  in  many  ways 
emulation  may  be  judiciously  directed  for  the  advance- 
ment of  pupils  and  the  upbuilding  of  the  school. 

Best  Incentives.  —  The  incentives  which  we  have  clas- 
sified as  Incentives  of  Last  Resort  and  Incentives  Liable 
to  Abuse  are,  in  general,  to  be  used  when  pupils  are  not 
on  a  high  enough  plane  morally  to  respond  to  higher  in- 
centives. The  teacher  must  begin  on  the  plane  of  the 
pupil's  appreciation  and  strive  to  bring  him  to  a  higher  one. 

Approbation.  —  The  scholar  has  fallen  very  low  in  the 
scale  of  morality  who  does  not  care  what  others  think  of 
him.  He  may  not  value  the  approbation  of  his  teacher 
and  his  parents,  the  ones  who  are  most  interested  in  him 
and  whose  approbation  is  worth  most  to  him,  yet  he 
values  the  opinions  of  his  mates.  For  this  reason,  one 
of  the  very  best  incentives  to  cultivate  in  school  is  class 
or  school  spirit  along  with  a  high  standard  of  morality. 


School  Government  157 

Gratification  of  Curiosity.  —  In  every  child  there  is  more 
or  less  of  curiosity  and,  if  the  lessons  and  school  work  can 
be  so  presented  as  to  arouse  this  characteristic,  it  becomes 
a  strong  incentive  and  one  that  should  be  cultivated.  The 
writers  of  continued  stories  know  how  to  make  use  of  this 
bent  of  our  natures  and  close  the  chapters  in  the  most 
interesting  places.  The  teacher  can  use  this  method  in 
getting  scholars  to  read  a  new  book,  as  suggested  in  the 
chapter  on  the  library.  But  it  is  the  primary  pupils, 
especially,  who  will  respond  to  this  incentive.  They  are 
interested  in  things  that  move,  —  in  action,  no  doubt 
wondering  what  the  outcome  will  be.  Hence  a  chart  in 
which  the  letters  may  be  arranged  by  the  teacher  has  an 
interest  about  it  that  the  ready-made  chart  does  not 
have.  The  drudgery  of  learning  words  can  be  enlivened 
by  hunting  for  the  word  among  a  number  of  other  words 
that  the  teacher  has  written  on  the  board;  also,  by  find- 
ing two-year-old  or  three-year-old  words,  "  an  "-words, 
"  ing  "-words,  etc.  The  ingenious  teacher  can  find  use 
for  this  faculty  in  geography  and  other  subjects. 

The  Satisfaction  of  Knowing  is  a  direct  reward  for  the 
labor  expended.  It  is  labor  paying  labor  in  labor's  own 
product  and  thus  is  the  most  natural  of  incentives.  When 
people  can  be  brought  to  love  knowledge  for  its  own 
sake,  they  are  on  safe  ground  educationally. 

Overcoming  Difficulties.  —  There  is  more  or  less  of  pug- 
nacity in  all  people,  and,  if  this  can  be  brought  to  service 
in  overcoming  the  difficulties  of  the  schoolroom,  it  be- 
comes a  powerful  agent  for  good.  All  like  to  win,  and,  if 
a  student  can  be  brought  to  feel  the  satisfaction  of  victory 
when  he  has  worked  a  hard  example  in  arithmetic  or  has 
mastered  a  difficult  lesson  in  grammar,  he  is  then  putting 
his  pugnacity  to  good  use,  a  better  use  than  if  he  were 
pounding  one  of  his  mates  on  the  playground. 


158  The  Rural  School 

Satisfaction  of  Doing  Right.  —  There  is,  perhaps,  no 
higher  incentive  than  the  doing  of  right  for  right's  sake. 
It  is  not  an  incentive  that  little  children  can  appreciate, 
but,  if  the  upper  grades  have  been  properly  taught,  and 
have  right  ethical  principles,  it  ought  to  appeal  to  them. 
The  school  that  will  respond  to  an  appeal  embodying  this 
principle  is  an  enviable  body  of  young  people.  They  will 
do  the  work  of  the  school  because  it  is  right;  they  will 
refrain  from  misdemeanors  upon  the  playgrounds,  be- 
cause these  things  are  wrong;  they  are  the  making  of 
good  citizens  and  the  state  can  feel  that  its  money  has 
been  well  expended  in  their  education. 

REFERENCES 

Bagley,  Classroom  Management  (p.  290,  School  City). 
1907.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Charter,  Methods  of  Teaching  {chapters  8-10). 
Colgrove,    The    Teacher   and   the   School   {chapter   24). 

1910.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  $1.25. 

Keith,  Elementary  Education  {chapter  7).  1905.  Scott, 
Foresman  &  Co.,  $1.25. 

Murphy,  Turning  Points  in  Teaching  {chapters  5  and  6). 
New  ed.,  1909.    A.  Flanagan  &  Co.,  60c. 

Phillips,  The  Art  of  Saving  Character:  The  Treatment 
of  Delinquent  Boys  in  Institutions  and  in  the  George  Junior 
Republic  Contrasted.     World's  Work  2:  1296. 

Dutton,  School  Management  {chajiter  8).  1903.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  $1.00. 

Jones,  Principles  of  Education  {chapter  3,  Motivation). 

1911.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.00. 

Page,  Theory  and  Art  of  Teaching  {chapter  9).  American 
Book  Co.,  $1.00. 

White,  School  Management  {p.  130).  American  Book 
Co.,  $1.00. 


Chapter   XV 

SCHOOL   ETHICS 

THE   NEED    OF  ETHICAL   TEACHING 

A  Call  for  Upright  Men.  —  The  state  has  a  right  to 
expect  that  the  schools  will  train  its  future  citizens  in 
morals  as  well  as  teach  them  concerning  the  secular  af- 
fairs of  life.  The  state  is  as  much  interested  in  an  obe- 
dient, upright  citizen,  as  in  a  well-informed  citizen.  It 
needs  men  with  deep  convictions  of  moral  right  and 
wrong.  Men  have  too  long  worshiped  the  person  who 
has  been  successful  financially  without  asking  whether  he 
acquired  his  money  by  fair  means  or  foul.  To  win,  by 
fair  means  if  possible,  but  win,  has  been  the  prevailing 
policy  in  college  athletics  and  school  games.  There  is  an 
awakening  along  these  lines  in  the  political  world,  and  it 
is  high  time  that  there  be  an  aAvakening  in  the  schools; 
for  there  is  a  call  for  men  who  can  play  fair  and  deal  hon- 
estly. The  state  needs  such  men  in  pohtics,  and  it  has  a 
right  to  expect  that  the  schools  will  do  their  part  in  fur- 
nishing them. 

Moral  Teachers.  —  The  place  to  begin  this  moral  train- 
ing is  with  the  teacher.  If  the  teacher  is  immoral,  there 
is  little  use  for  him  to  teach  morals  in  school,  for  he  will 
be  but  "  sounding  brass  and  a  tinkling  cymbal."  The 
oft-quoted  lines  of  Emerson  fit  well  here:  "  How  can  I 
hear  what  you  say  while  what  you  are  thunders  so  loud 
in  my  ears?  "    The  teacher  with  a  strong  personality  and 

159 


160  The  Rural  School 

an  upright  character  can  do  more  for  character  building 
than  ail  the  ethical  codes  and  formulas  that  may  be 
printed.  It  is  the  living  teacher  that  is  so  important  in 
all  school  work.  Again  and  again  this  thought  must  be 
reiterated  and  the  burden  of  the  success  or  failure  of  the 
school  must  be  laid  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  teacher.  It 
has  been  said,  "  As  the  teacher,  so  the  school,"  and  the 
truth  of  this  statement  is  being  verified  in  thousands  of 
instances  every  year.  In  some  way  good  schools  seem  to 
follow  certain  teachers,  and  poor  schools  are  in  the  wake  of 
other  teachers.  While  the  statement  about  Mark  Hopkins 
and  the  log  was  not  made  to  disparage  the  idea  of  good 
schoolhouses,  it  was  made  to  emphasize  the  importance 
and  influence  of  a  good  teacher.  A  school  board  can  well 
afford  to  inquire  into  the  character  of  the  teacher  that  they 
are  about  to  hire;  for  a  teacher  with  convictions  that  he 
is  ready  to  stand  for,  and  discretion  enough  to  know  when 
and  how  to  act  is  worth  more  to  a  district  than  a  college 
graduate  without  any  defuiite  moral  principles. 

METHODS  OF  ETHICAL  TEACHING 

Unsuccessful  Attempts.  —  American  teachers  have  suc- 
ceeded in  teaching  primary  subjects,  geography  and  his- 
tory, but  they  have  not  been  so  successful  in  teaching 
ethics  in  the  common  schools.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
various.  The  first  is  because  they  have  not  tried  very 
hard.  They  have  not  felt  the  need.  Of  course,  they  have 
acknowledged  that  ethics  should  be  taught,  but  have  not 
realized  the  necessity  of  teaching  this  subject  as  much  as 
they  have  that  of  teaching  physiology,  history,  reading, 
etc.  In  the  second  place,  they  have  failed  because,  when 
they  did  attempt  to  teach  ethics,  they  did  it  in  a  formal 
manner,  and  boys  and  girls  felt  that  they  were  being 


School  Ethics  161 

"  preached  at,"  and  revolted  and  set  themselves  as  flint 
against  the  truths  presented.  There  was  no  attempt  to 
connect  this  teaching  with  the  every-day  affairs  of  life, 
no  call  to  put  the  truth  of  these  lessons  into  practice.  It 
was  dry  formalism,  and  it  failed  to  accomplish  the  results 
desired.  Then  again,  teachers  have  failed  because  they 
went  to  the  other  extreme  and  said  that  all  teaching  of 
morals  should  be  informal;  that,  when  the  truth  pre- 
sented itself  in  the  regular  lessons  of  the  day,  they  would 
take  it  up;  that,  if  a  difficulty  in  the  schoolroom  or  on  the 
playground  called  for  the  teaching  of  a  certain  moral 
truth,  they  would  then  present  the  principle  underlying 
and  give  the  requisite  instruction.  In  other  words,  they 
wait  for  the  occasion  to  direct  them  as  to  time  and  sub- 
ject. This  is  in  part  a  good  plan,  if  it  were  carried  out; 
but  it  is  easy  to  neglect  the  occasion,  and  hard  to  break 
away  from  the  regular  program  of  the  day  to  teach  a 
lesson  in  morals.  Then,  too,  the  school  may  not  bring 
out  all  the  truths  that  one  should  teach.  It  is  easy  to 
neglect  those  things  for  which  we  do  not  plan  and  for 
which  our  daily  program  does  not  call. 

Making  Use  of  Incidents.  —  A  teacher  ought  to  step 
aside  from  the  daily  routine  when  occasion  suggests,  to 
teach  some  important  moral  truth.  A  wreck  on  the  rail- 
road may  present  the  opportunity  for  teaching  a  lesson 
on  obedience  to  orders,  or  carefulness,  or  exactness  as  the 
case  may  indicate.  Some  transaction  at  school,  if  it  is 
not  too  personal,  may  give  an  occasion  for  a  talk  on  neat- 
ness, or  some  other  of  the  school  virtues.  At  opening 
exercises  in  the  morning  or  at  noon,  or  it  may  be  at  the 
close  of  the  recess  period,  will  be  the  proper  time  to  bring 
the  subject  to  the  attention  of  the  school. 

A  Formal  Plan  Desirable.  —  While  the  incidental  plan 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  some  more  formal  plan  of 


162  The  Rural  School 

teaching  ethics  should  be  adopted.  There  was  a  time 
when  all  the  up-to-date  schools  were  teaching  spelling 
incidentally.  There  were  no  spelling  books  used,  but 
words  were  selected  from  all  the  lessons,  and  spelling  was 
made  a  part  of  every  exercise.  The  plan  seemed  to  be 
good,  but  it  did  not  work;  or,  perhaps,  it  is  better  to  say 
the  teachers  did  not  work  it,  and  they  turned  back  to  the 
spelling  book  again.  So  with  ethics,  some  definite  plan 
or  formal  outline  must  be  incorporated  into  the  course  of 
study  or  little  or  nothing  will  be  accomplished. 

Right  Thinking.  —  In  order  to  get  pupils  to  act  right 
it  is  necessary  to  get  them  to  think  right.  If  you  can  in- 
fluence people  to  think  good  thoughts,  you  will  have  no 
trouble  with  their  outward  actions.  Many  are  inclined 
to  believe  that  it  does  not  matter  how  one  thinks  so  long 
as  he  acts  right.  They  forget  that  thinking  is  father  to 
acting.  As  a  rule  we  do  not  do  those  things  to  which  our 
thinking  is  all  averse.  We  sometimes  do  things  under 
the  impulse  of  the  moment,  in  a  flash  of  temper,  that  we 
would  not  do  were  we  calmly  to  think  it  over;  but  even 
then,  if  we  analyze  these  deeds  closely,  it  will  be  seen 
that  they  bear  some  relation  to  our  thinking. 

How  to  Get  Pupils  to  Think  Good  Thoughts.  —  Then 
the  question  is,  How  shall  the  teacher  get  the  pupils  to 
do  pure  thinking?  First,  the  pupils  should  know  this 
truth,  "  Thoughts  arc  things."  Next,  they  should  be 
given  material  for  good  wholesome  thoughts.  There  are 
many  short  selections  of  poetry,  which  contain  elevating 
thoughts,  that  may  be  learned  by  the  whole  school  and 
recited  as  a  part  of  the  opening  exercises.  As  far  as  pos- 
sible, keep  from  sight  ugly  pictures,  especially  those 
which  suggest  immoral  thoughts.  This  suggestion  ap- 
plies to  word  pictures  as  well  as  to  other  pictures.  See 
also  the  suggestion  given  by  Mr.  Turner  in  his  "  Recess 


School  Ethics  163 

Gang  "  in  the  chapter  on  Play  and  Playgrounds.  The 
immoral  stories  of  one  boy  on  the  playgromid  or  on  the 
road  to  and  from  school  will  poison  the  minds  of  every 
one  with  whom  he  may  come  in  contact. 

The  teacher  has  not  done  his  whole  duty  until  he  sees 
that  the  outhouses  are  clean  from  all  immoral  pictures 
and  suggestions.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  mind  pure 
as  well  as  to  feed  it  with  pure  thoughts. 

Time  an  Element.  —  One  of  Miss  Brownlee's  ideas 
is  to  keep  a  subject  before  the  mind  for  a  month;  for 
example,  she  takes  kindness  as  the  subject  for  Septem- 
ber. The  quotations  are  all  about  kindness,  the  motto  is 
kindness,  and  for  the  whole  month  the  moral  teaching  is 
about  kindness.  She  takes  a  division  of  the  subject  for 
each  week;  first  week,  kindness  to  parents;  second  week, 
to  the  teacher;  third  week,  to  brothers  and  sisters  and 
associates;  fourth  week,  to  animals.  Thus  the  whole 
month  is  spent  on  the  subject  of  kindness,  and  the  im- 
pression is  deepened  and  the  moral  concept  is  broadened 
as  it  could  not  be  if  these  lessons  were  given  haphaz- 
ard. She  follows  this  month's  work  on  kindness-by 
cleanliness,  obedience,  self-control,  curtesy  _  and  cheer- 
fulness, work,  honor,  honesty  and  truthfulness,  and  clean 
language  for  the  respective  months  of  the  school  year, 
keeping  each  thought  before  the  minds  of  the  pupils  for 
the  required  time. 

Value  of  Opportunity  for  Expression  —  All  moral 
training  will  be  more  or  less  a  failure  that  does  not  pro- 
vide for  an  opportunity  to  put  the  teaching  into  prac- 
tice. One  may  talk  all  he  pleases  about  kindness,  but 
unless  he  gets  his  pupils  to  be  kind  to  some  one  or  some- 
thing, he  will  leave  no  lasting  impression.  They  must  be 
encouraged  to  be  kind  to  father  and  mother,  to  teacher 
and  others,  to  do  little  acts  of  kindness  to  playmates  and 


164  The  Rural  School 

pets,  that  they  may  make  the  moral  growth  desired.  The 
same  truth  holds  good  here  as  in  school  government;  we 
need  to  inhibit  the  evil  acts  and  encourage  the  good  ones. 
If  the  tendency  to  do  kindness  is  inhibited,  the  desire  is 
lost  and  it  becomes  moral  degeneracy  rather  than  moral 
growth.  Some  one  has  said  that  an  evil  effect  of  the 
theater  is  that  it  arouses  our  emotions  but  gives  no  op- 
portunity for  giving  practical  expression  to  the  emotion. 
For  example,  we  see  pity  depicted  on  the  stage  and  we  are 
constrained  to  relieve  the  distress,  but  when  the  play  is 
over,  we  awaken  to  a  sense  of  the  conditions  and  realize 
that  it  was  all  a  play  and  our  emotions  were  for  naught. 
The  feeling  was  inhibited,  and  the  next  time  it  is  harder 
to  arouse  the  sense  of  compassion.  The  month  that  clean- 
liness is  taught  will  avail  but  little  unless  the  boys  and 
girls  come  with  cleaner  hands  and  faces,  and  unless  the 
floor  is  kept  cleaner  than  usual.  It  should  be  a  time  for 
everybody  and  everything  to  be  clean.  Cleanliness 
should  be  the  motto;  it  should  also  be  the  subject  of  short 
morning  talks.  Keep  the  subject  constantly  before  the 
minds  without  making  it  offensive.  Think  it,  talk  it, 
practice   it. 

Encouraging  the  Pupils  to  do  the  Talking.  —  That  the 
pupils  may  not  think  that  they  are  being  "  preached  at," 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  them  do  most  of  the  talking. 
They  have  ideas  on  moral  subjects  and  often  very  good 
ones,  and  if  they  may  be  led  to  express  these  ideas,  it  will 
be  better  than  for  the  teacher  to  do  all  the  talking.  In- 
deed, the  teacher  should  not  do  a  great  deal  of  talking; 
a  short  talk  of  five  minutes  in  the  morning  will  be  better 
than  long-drawn-out  lectures  on  a  subject.  These  long 
talks  were  what  weakened  the  influence  of  the  old  time 
method  of  moral  instruction.  This  is  the  preaching  that 
all  pupils  dread.    Lead  them  to  do  the  preaching. 


School  Ethics  165 

The  following  is  quoted  from  the  Course  of  Study  in 
Ethics  for  the  Pubhc  Schools  of  Kansas:  "  The  child 
may  resent  having  a  moral  drawn  for  him  which  he  can 
draw  for  himself.  He  is  more  likely  to  follow  the  prin- 
ciple which  he  himself  discovers  or  formulates,  because 
it  is  his  own."  Miss  Brownlee  has  a  very  pretty  device 
for  teaching  the  little  people  ethical  truths.  She  tells 
them  that  they  have  a  servant  that  ought  to  be  taught 
to  obey  them,  —  it  is  body.  Body  does  not  always  do  as 
it  should;  it  does  not  keep  its  hands  clean;  sometimes  it 
eats  too  much,  and  again  it  will  not  go  to  bed  when  it 
is  time,  etc.,  but  they  can  make  body  obey,  if  only  they 
keep  trying. 

This  device  is  all  right  for  little  folks,  and,  if  they  are 
instructed  in  the  presence  of  the  older  ones,  these  in  turn 
will  take  the  lessons  to  themselves.  The  suggestions 
given  in  the  following  topic  will  apply  more  particularly 
to  the  older  pupils. 

The  School  City.  —  It  is  possible  to  introduce  some 
of  the  features  of  the  School  City  into  the  rural  school. 
Briefly  stated,  the  School  City  is  an  organization  in  the 
school  in  which  the  pupils  elect  a  mayor,  a  city  clerk,  and 
the  other  officers  of  a  city  from  among  their  own  number. 
Sometimes  these  officers  are  the  governing  body  of  the 
school;  in  other  instances  they  have  certain  duties  and 
responsibilities,  but  these  do  not  extend  to  the  control- 
ling of  their  mates  nor  to  the  making  of  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  the  school. 

The  Plan  in  Operation.  —  In  the  model  rural  school 
maintained  by  the  State  Normal  of  Kansas  during  the 
summer  of  1910,  Mrs.  Emily  K.  Hoelcel,  the  teacher, 
used  some  such  plan  as  the  following.  One  girl  was  a 
committee  to  see  that  there  was  some  one  to  sweep  and 
keep  the  house  clean.     All  who  were  old  enough  to  do 


166  The  Rural  School 

this  work  were  given  lessons  in  sweeping  and  dusting. 
This  instruction  was  a  part  of  the  domestic  science  teach- 
ing, which  consisted  of  lessons  in  sewing,  folding  and 
brushing  of  clothes,  very  much  about  cleanliness  and 
a  little  about  cooking  and  serving.  One  afternoon  the 
teacher  and  pupils  served  a  light  lunch  to  the  parents 
of  the  district.  This  organization  for  work  extended  to 
committees  to  look  after  the  cloakrooms  and  furnish 
water  and  carry  out  the  slops.  On  the  playground  there 
were  captains  for  each  of  the  swings,  one  for  the  "  slide  " 
and  one  for  the  "  giant's  stride;  "  captains  for  the  ball 
games  and  other  games  and  plays.  There  was  a  sanitary 
commission  whose  duty  was  to  look  after  the  grounds, 
water  the  flowers  and  keep  the  outhouses  clean.  The 
children  took  great  interest  in  these  matters  and  it  was 
surprising  how  much  was  accomplished  in  two  months 
in  the  way  of  better  sentiments  and  higher  ideas. 

Responsibility  and  Cooperation.  —  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  place  responsibility  upon  a  pupil  commensu- 
rate to  his  age  and  judgment.  It  is  often  the  very  best 
thing  for  a  bad  boy,  who  is  accustomed  to  breaking  the 
rules  of  school  and  of  play  also,  to  give  him  charge  of  a 
swing  and  let  it  be  his  place  to  see  that  all  have  equal 
opportunities  and  that  each  one  gets  his  turn  to  swing. 
If  it  is  his  business  to  see  that  there  is  fair  play  in  the 
game,  it  will  lead  him  to  look  at  right  and  wrong  from  a 
different  standpoint  and  change  his  own  acts  in  accord- 
ance with  his  new  ideas  of  thinking.  Cooperation  in  the 
management  of  the  school,  whether  it  be  in  keeping  the 
house  clean  and  decorating  its  walls  by  hanging  a  pic- 
ture; beautifying  the  grounds  by  planting  a  tree,  a  shrub 
or  flower;  raking  the  yard  and  burning  the  trash;  or 
assisting  in  the  government  of  the  school  by  seeing  that 
there  is  fair  play  in  the  school  games,  is  of  intrinsic  value. 


School  Ethics  167 

To  lead  pupils  to  feel  that  the  school  is  theirs  and  to  de- 
sire to  make  it  the  very  best  possible,  is  worth  more  than 
many  lessons  learned  from  books.  Another  good  thing 
about  this  cooperation  is  that  it  is  reactive;  the  pupil, 
when  he  becomes  imbued  with  the  spirit,  is  willing  to  do 
his  work  in  the  schoolroom. 

Wise  judgment  and  careful  management  are  needed  to 
put  these  plans  into  operation.  The  teacher  who  tries  to 
get  his  pupils  to  do  the  sweeping  so  that  he  may  be  saved 
this  drudgery,  or  the  teacher  who  is  unwilling  to  take  hold 
of  the  broom  in  order  to  show  a  pupil  how  to  sweep  with- 
out making  a  dust,  or  even  do  the  work  himself  if  circum- 
stances seem  to  justify,  need  not  try  this  plan.  The  plan 
of  having  captains  on  the  playground,  in  order  to  save  the 
teacher  the  management  of  them,  will  fail.  In  this  idea, 
there  is  no  place  for  selfishness.  It  is  utilizing  the  indi- 
vidual for  the  good  of  the  whole  school.  Its  great  lessons 
are  unselfishness  and  the  dignity  of  labor;  and  the  teacher 
who  is  afraid  of  work,  or  who  tries  to  introduce  it  from 
selfish  motives,  had  better  leave  it  untried. 

Influence  of  Heroes.  —  There  are  still  other  means  that 
may  be  found  for  the  special  instruction  of  older  boys  and 
girls.  Mr.  E.  T.  Fairchild,  State  Superintendent  of  Kan- 
sas, has  prepared  and  distributed  throughout  the  state 
an  excellent  course  of  study  in  ethics,  from  which  the 
following  quotation  is  to  our  purpose:  "  Each  school 
study  has  a  specific  moral  value.  Literature  and  history 
embody  in  concrete  form  moral  facts  and  principles,  show- 
ing to  the  child  his  own  self,  '  writ  large,'  furnishing  him 
with  ideals  and  incentives,  and  molding  his  moral  judg- 
ment; and  they  will  accomplish  these  results  the  more 
surely  as  the  teacher  is  himself  moved  by  that  which  is 
presented.  Every  subject  involving  observation  and  ex- 
pression j«  essentially  moral.     Every  subject,  therefore, 


168  The  Rural  School 

should  be  so  taught  as  to  make  for  truth-telHng  in  word 
and  act,  and  for  training  in  self-expression." 

This  suggests  the  method  to  be  pursued.  The  heroes 
of  history  and  literature  furnish  the  basis  for  a  great  deal 
of  moral  instruction  for  older  pupils.  If  a  boy  can  really 
be  interested  in  Lincoln,  in  his  struggles  for  an  educa- 
tion, in  his  combat  with  poverty,  in  his  battle  with  slavery 
and  the  forces  which  opposed  him  and  in  his  life-long 
effort  to  bring  out  the  best  there  was  in  himself,  he  will 
be  led  to  be  a  better  man  with  higher  ambitions  and  a 
stronger  determination  to  fight  against  the  vicissitudes 
of  life.  History  is  replete  with  examples  of  heroes  and 
men  and  women  of  noble  lives.  Here  may  be  found  ex- 
amples of  almost  any  of  the  virtues  as  well  as  the  vices  of 
mankind.  However,  it  is  always  better  that  the  teaching 
be  positive  rather  than  negative;  in  other  words,  it  is 
better  to  commend  the  virtues  of  men  rather  than  to 
condemn  their  vices.  History  nowhere  furnishes  better 
examples  of  upright  characters  than  in  the  lives  of  Abra- 
ham, Joseph,  Moses,  and,  above  all,  in  the  life  of  Christ. 


REFERENCES 

Brownlee,  Character  Building  in  School.  1912.  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Co.,  $1.00. 

Brownlee,  Moral  Training  in  Public  Schools.  1908. 
Holden  Book  Cover  Co.,  10c. 

Everett,  Ethics  for  Young  People.    Ginn  &  Co.,  50c. 

Ethics  of  Success  (Books  1,  2,  3,  for  grades  3  to  8). 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  48,  60,  &  90c. 

Kansas  State  Board  of  Education,  Course  of  Study  in 
Ethics.  1909.  State  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Topeka, 
Kansas. 

White,  School  Management.    American  Book  Co.,  $1.00. 


Chapter    XVI 

AGRICULTURE    IN    RURAL    SCHOOLS 

OVERCOMING   OBSTACLES 

Diificulties.  —  Sympathy  should  be  extended  to  those 
teachers  who  say  that  they  have  a  hard  time  to  get  all  of 
the  work  done  that  is  now  outlined  in  the  course  of  study, 
without  adding  a  new  subject.  Those  who  are  in  close 
touch  with  the  work  being  done  in  the  rural  schools  know 
that  much  of  the  work  is  but  poorly  done  and  that  the 
teachers  are  not  prepared  to  teach  the  subject  of  agricul- 
ture. 

But  if  agriculture  has  a  body  of  truth  suited  to  school 
instruction,  room  will  have  to  be  made  for  it  and  teachers 
will  have  to  be  trained  to  teach  it.  That  the  Agricul- 
tural Colleges  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  have  gotten  together  a  great  body  of  knowl- 
edge that  is  worth  the  farmer's  knowing  cannot  be 
denied,  and  much  has  been  put  into  textbook  form  so 
that  it  may  be  taught  in  our  schools.  It  is  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time  until  this  knowledge  will  be  adjusted  to  the 
needs  of  the  schools. 

Nature  of  Material  Suited  to  Rural  Schools.  —  Our 
first  textbooks  in  physiology  were  very  different  from 
what  they  are  now,  and  even  the  last  few  years  have  seen 
a  great  change  in  the  subject  matter  used.  Formerly, 
much  time  was  spent  in  learning  the  names  of  bones  and 
muscles;    now  hygiene  and  sanitation  are  centers  of  at- 

169 


170  The  Rural  School 

tention.  So  it  will  be  with  agriculture.  It  has  been 
handed  doA\ai  from  the  colleges  and  it  has  been  too  tech- 
nical and  scientific  for  the  rural  schools.  It  must  be  ele- 
mentary and  practical. 

Farmers  are  inclined  to  think  that  a  woman  cannot 
teach  a  boy  how  to  farm  and  how  to  raise  hogs.  And 
there  is  some  truth  in  this;  but  as  a  woman  can  teach 
certain  laws  of  health  and  certain  truths  regarding  sani- 
tation, so  there  are  certain  truths  of  agriculture  that  either 
a  man  or  woman  can  teach.  As  was  said  above,  these 
truths  must  be  elementary,  such  as  can  be  put  into  a  text- 
book and  will  yield  to  the  textbook  method  of  teaching. 
The  rural  schools  are  not  equipped  to  do  laboratory  work 
and  will  not  be  for  years  to  come.  There  are  facts  that 
can  be  presented  in  school  and  that  pupils  may  observe 
in  the  field,  the  garden  or  barnyard.  These  must  relate 
to  plants  and  other  vegetation,  farm  animals,  and  insects 
that  help  or  hinder  the  farmer.  Nature  study  has  only 
to  be  given  an  agricultural  trend  to  answer  the  purpose 
of  agriculture  for  the  lower  grades.  A  text  containing  a 
little  more  advanced  material  comprising  the  elements  of 
botany  and  zoology,  and  possibly  something  of  chemistry 
and  geology,  presented  in  common  terms  and  simple 
language,  should  ])e  used  for  the  higher  grades. 

Things  Which  Can  be  Done.  —  In  spite  of  obstacles 
there  are  a  number  of  things  which  an  earnest  teacher 
can  do  to  encourage  the  study  of  agriculture  in  the  com- 
munity and  among  the  older  boys  and  girls.  The  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington  publishes  numerous 
bulletins  on  various  subjects  pertaining  to  agriculture. 
These  bulletins  may  be  had  for  the  asking.  They  treat 
not  only  of  agriculture  l^ut  also  of  dairying,  chicken  rais- 
ing, bee  culture,  stock  breeding,  etc.  The  teacher  can 
get  a  number  of  these  and  lend  them  to  persons  interested 


Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools  171 

in  these  subjects  and  encourage  them  to  send  for  others 
on  their  own  account.  The  agricultural  colleges  also  are 
sending  out  bulletins,  and  in  some  cases  are  even  send- 
ing out  members  of  their  faculty  to  give  lessons  in  agri- 
culture and  conduct  classes  in  domestic  science  and 
household  economy.  The  teacher  who  keeps  informed  of 
and  in  touch  with  these  movements  can  do  much  by  in- 
teresting the  community  in  them. 

OUTLINE  OF  WORK  FOR  A  RURAL  SCHOOL 

Professor  H.  L.  Kent,  of  the  Extension  Department  of 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  gives  the  following 
outline  of  what  can  reasonably  be  accomplished  in  agri- 
culture during  a  seven  months'  term  in  a  rural  school: 

"  So  long  as  we  can  have  but  one  year  of  agriculture 
in  the  grades,  this  one  year  of  work  must  deal  very  largely 
with  fundamentals  and  general  principles.  It  can  not 
and  indeed  should  not  deal  with  specific  rules  for  various 
practices  and  specific  information  about  various  crops. 
If  the  proper  kind  of  nature  study  be  done  in  the  low^er 
grades  much  of  the  foundation  work  may  be  taught  be- 
fore the  work  in  formal  agriculture  is  begun. 

"  The  work  must  be  applied  locally  and  in  this  way  the 
general  principles  may  be  illustrated  and  applied  most 
effectively.  These  principles  should  whenever  possible 
be  illustrated  and  applied  to  special  crops,  as  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  apples,  sorghum,  etc. 

"  The  work  must  follow  the  order  of  the  seasons  so 
that  the  teacher  may  secure  materials  and  apply  the  sub- 
ject matter.  It  must  not  be  wholly  a  textbook  course, 
but  it  must  be  more  a  study  of  things.  The  barnyard, 
the  orchard,  the  field,  and  the  feed  lot  must  constantly 
be  sources  of  information  and  illustration. 


172  The  Rural  School 

"  The  following  outline  will  give  an  idea  of  how  the 
above  principles  may  be  applied.  It  is  arranged  for  a 
seven-month  school.  For  longer  terms,  more  time  should 
be  given  to  each  month's  work. 

"  First  and  Second  Months.  —  General  principles  of 
plant  growth  and  structure :  Flowers  and  fruit  formation, 
roots  and  their  work,  leaves  and  their  work,  stems  and 
their  work.  Special  topics :  budding,  insect  studies, 
weeds,  propagation  of  plants  and  fungous  diseases.  Use 
important  crops  of  the  locality  for  illustration  while 
teaching  the  above, 

"  Third  and  Fourth  Months.  —  Relation  of  live  stock, 
farm  crops  and  successful  farming.  Domestic  animals 
and  their  improvement.  Study  breeds,  market,  classes, 
types,  feeding,  caring  for  and  marketing  the  following: 
hogs,  horses,  cattle  (including  dairying),  sheep,  poultry. 
Special  study  of  animal  feeding  (connect  with  plant 
growth  and  storage  of  food.)  Make  live  stock  surveys 
of  the  district. 

"  Fifth  Month.  —  Soils,  soil  origin  and  soil  types,  soil 
air  and  water,  relation  of  plant  to  soil  (recall  and  review 
work  of  first  two  months),  soil  management,  tillage  and 
its  effects,  fertilizers,  use  and  application.  Continue  field 
and  laboratory  work. 

"  Sixth  Month.  —  Seeds,  seed  selection,  seed  testing, 
germination  and  germination  requirements,  preparation  of 
seed  bed,  planting  and  managing  the  hotbed.  Wherever 
possible  there  should  be  a  hotbed  on  the  school  grounds. 
Gardens  and  gardening  should  be  emphasized  in  connec- 
tion with  this  month's  work. 

"  Seventh  Month.  —  Continue  work  with  hotbed  as 
laboratory  and  review  work.  Grafting,  pruning,  tree 
planting,  yard  improvement,  garden  work,  insects  and 
spraying,   birds  and   crop-planting    calendar  should    be 


Agriculture  In  Rural  Schools  173 

worked  out.  If  possible  include  time,  amount  of  seed  and 
preparation  of  seed  bed  for  each  crop.  This  must  be 
brief,  a  ready  reference  compilation." 

A  LESSON  PLAN 

The  following  lesson  suggestions  by  Professor  Kent  fit 
in  with  the  outline  for  the  sixth  month.  By  making 
similar  lesson  plans  for  the  other  topics  of  the  outline,  the 
teacher  can  make  agriculture  a  most  interesting  and 
profitable  study. 

"  How  the  Seeds  of  Plants  are  Formed.  —  Although 
this  is  called  a  lesson  plan,  it  may  require  several  days 
to  teach  it. 

"  Introductory.  —  Why  do  plants  need  seeds?  To  con- 
tinue life  of  plant  through  the  winter;  to  increase  the 
number;  to  spread  more  widely  over  the  earth. 

"  What  kind  of  plants  produce  seeds?  Only  mature 
plants  which  bear  flowers.  (Toadstools,  puffballs  and 
molds  bear  spores,  dustlike  particles,  in  place  of  seeds.) 

"Use  of  seeds  to  farmer:  feed  for  animals;  for  new 
plants  or  crops. 

"  Kind  of  seed  the  farmer  wants:  many;  large;  seeds 
with  food  that  tastes  good,  for  feed;  good  seed  from  good 
plants,  for  planting. 

"  Use  the  corn  plant  to  learn  how  seeds  are  produced. 
Find  late  corn  stalks  with  tassel  and  silk  just  shot.  Take 
these  to  schoolroom  for  use  of  pupils.  Try  to  have  one 
for  each  pupil. 

"  The  Tassel.  —  Describe  it.  Carefully  pull  some  of  the 
little  green  scales  apart.  What  is  found?  How  many? 
Color?  Shape?  Have  pupils  ever  seen  these  in  the  field? 
They  are  called  stamens.  What  do  they  contain?  (Try 
to  get  a  mature  tassel  and  dust  pollen  on  a  dark  surface.) 


174 


The  Rural  School 


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CHILDREN  WITH    FLOWERS    AND    VEGETABLES    RAISED    IN   THEIR 
GARDENS 


The  corn  tassel  is  a  cluster  of  flowers.  It  is  the  function 
of  these  flowers  to  produce  pollen. 

"  The  Ear.  —  Strip  off  the  husks  carefully.  Do  not  in- 
jure the  silk.  Tell  what  you  see.  (Describe  the  ear.)  Ker- 
nels —  size,  hardness,  etc.  Where  does  the  silk  start? 
How  does  it  differ  there  from  at  the  tip  of  the  ear?  The 
ear  is  another  cluster  of  flowers.  Each  silk  and  "  baby  " 
kernel  is  a  part  of  one  flower  called  a  pistil.  The  end  of 
the  silk  is  slightly  rough  for  an  inch  or  two. 

"  Summary.  —  Kinds  of  flowers  on  corn  plant.  What 
each  flower  bears.  Where  each  is  found  on  stalk.  How 
these  differ  from  other  flowers. 

"  Questions.  —  Is  it  necessary  that  a  part  of  a  plant  be 
})right-colored  to  be  a  flower?  What  is  necessary  to  make 
it  a  flower?  Name  some  other  plants  which  do  not  have 
bright-colored  flowers. 


Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools 


175 


A    SCHOOL    CAXXEHY 

"  Note.  —  No  recitation  in  agriculture  on  the  following 
day,  but  for  drawing  and  grammar  or  English  lesson 
pupils  draw  (from  objects)  the  things  studied  the  day 
before  and  write  a  description  of  them.  Insist  on  plain, 
unshaded  drawings.  Criticise  language,  capitalization, 
punctuation,  etc." 

SCHOOL  GARDENS 


In  the  northern  states,  from  the  fact  that  the  school 
terms  extend  over  that  part  of  the  year  in  which  gardens 
do  not  usually  grow,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  teachers 
lack  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  that  patrons  are 
prejudiced  against  the  introduction  of  the  study  into  the 
school  curriculum,  not  much  has  been  accomplished  in 
school  gardens  in  our  rural  schools.  In  the  southern 
states,  weather  conditions  are  more  favorable,  and  better 


[176] 


Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools  177 


results  have  been  attained.  In  either  section  the  most 
successful  work  is  being  accomphshed  by  getting  pupils 
interested  in  raising  gardens  at  home.  Sweet  potato, 
tomato,  cabbage,  and  lettuce  plants  may  be  raised  in  a 
hot-bed  on  the  school  grounds.  The  plants  are  then 
taken  home  and  set  in  a  garden  there. 

A  Canning  Outfit.  —  An  almost  necessary  supplement 
to  gardening  of  this  kind 
is  a  camiing  outfit.  The 
boys  and  girls  must  be 
able  to  dispose  of  their 
products  or  they  will  soon 
lose  interest  in  raising 
them.  Through  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  very  suc- 
cessful experiments  are 
being  conducted  along 
these  lines  in  the  South. 
Pupils  are  raising  toma- 
toes at  home  and  canning 
them  in  tin  cans  for  the 
market.    A  camiing  outfit 

is  bought  by  the  district  or  loaned  by  the  county  or 
parish.  In  some  instances  government,  state,  or  county 
experts  visit  the  community  and  show  the  people  how  to 
use  a  canner. 

A  Winter  Garden.  —  A  firm  m  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
is  manufacturing  a  double  glass  sash  for  hotbeds  and  cold 
frames.  When  made  according  to  directions,  these  hot- 
l)eds  will  withstand  zero,  or  even  colder,  weather  w^ithout 
freezing.  These  winter  gardens  have  been  tested  in 
mxany  parts  of  the  United  States;  and  lettuce,  radishes, 
onions,  and    other   hardy   vegetables   have   been  grown 


LOOKING    OVER   HER   CROP 


178  The  Rural  School 


A    CORN   CLUB    MEETING 

through  the  coldest  winter  weather.  The  usual  size  of 
the  sash  is  3  by  6  feet,  and  it  sells  for  $4.20.  For  ten 
or  twelve  dollars  a  school  can  equip  a  small  hotbed  of 
this  kind,  and  by  this  means  maintain  both  a  fall  and 
early  spring  garden. 

CONTESTS  AND   CLUBS 

About  the  best  results  are  being  attained  in  the  teach- 
ing of  agriculture  and  domestic  science  through  the  corn 
growing  contests  for  boys  and  the  cooking  and  sewing 
contests  for  girls.  These  are  usually  conducted  by  the 
county  superintendent  or  the  agriculture  society  of  the 
county,  but  the  teacher  can  encourage  the  pupils  to  enter 
and  do  their  best  for  the  honor  of  the  school  and  neigh- 
borhood. In  Nebraska,  under  the  direction  of  former 
State  Superintendent  E.  C.  Bishop,  much  was  accom- 


Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools  179 

plished  by  the  organization  of  clubs  for  consideration  of 
various  subjects.  Numbers  of  young  women  banded 
together  for  the  study  of  domestic  science  or  household 
economy,  and  by  the  perusal  of  bulletins,  by  meetings 
and  discussions,  by  actual  practice  and  demonstrations 
much  interest  was  aroused  and  much  useful  knowledge 
was  gained. 

An  Example. —  W.  M.  Oakerson,  County  Superin- 
tendent of  Nodaway  County,  Missouri,  gives  the  follow- 
ing report  of  agricultural  and  domestic  science  contests, 
conducted  by  him.  "  A  few  years  ago,  we  decided  that  in 
Nodaway  County,  Missouri,  we  could  secure  greater  in- 
terest in  farm  work  among  the  boys  by  inaugurating  a 
corn  growing  contest  for  the  boys,  and  that  we  could 
secure  greater  interest  among  the  girls  of  the  county  by 
inaugurating  contests  for  them  in  cooking,  sewing  and 
other  home  work.  We  believed  then,  and  are  now  con- 
vinced, that  these  contests  would  tend  to  do  the  following: 

"1.  To  stimulate  and  direct  educational  progress  along 
practical  lines. 

"2.  To  teach  such  scientific  facts  in  reference  to  agri- 
culture and  domestic  science  as  will  stimulate  habits  of 
observation,  that  will  enable  boys  and  girls  to  recognize 
good  and  bad  qualities  in  their  products,  that  they  may 
learn  something  of  the  value  of  labor  and  the  cost  of 
production,  that  they  may  be  encouraged  to  read  good 
Uterature,  that  their  views  may  be  broadened  and  that 
they  may  be  prepared  for  useful  citizenship. 

"3.  To  utilize  the  natural  love  of  young  people  for 
competition  and  cause  them  to  put  forth  greater  energy 
and  activity  for  advancing  their  own  education. 

"  So  each  year  we  raise  from  $800  to  $1000  to  be  used 
in  giving  prizes  and  forwarding  the  work.  All  boys  and 
young  men  from  10  to  20  years  of  age  who  desire  are  en- 


180 


The  Rural  School* 


A  CORN  CLUB  BOY  AND  HIS  CROP 


rolled  in  these  contests,  and  certain  rules  are  given  them 
by  which  they  must  abide.  The  girls  are  enrolled  for 
doing  work  in  domestic  science.  We  usually  have  about 
400  boys  enrolled  in  the  corn  growing  contest,  and  about 
600  girls  enrolled  in  the  domestic  science  contest.  Prizes 
are  given  to  the  boys  for  the  best  ten  ears  of  white  corn, 
the  best  ten  ears  of  yellow  corn,  the  best  20  ears  of  white 
corn,  the  best  20  ears  of  yellow  corn,  the  best  ear  of  corn, 
the  best  kept  record  book,  the  largest  acre  yield  of  corn 
and  for  the  best  corn  judging.    The  boys  are  divided  into 


Agriculture  In  Rural  Schools  181 

two  classes  according  to  age,  those  from  10  to  15  forming 
one  class  and  those  from  16  to  20  forming  another  class. 
This  is  to  give  the  yomiger  boys  a  chance  to  compete 
with  each  other  and  not  require  them  to  compete  with 
the  older  boys.  Instruction  is  sent  to  the  boys  from  the 
office  of  the  county  superintendent,  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  of  the  State  University,  and  the  U.  S.  Depart- 


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ment  of  Agriculture.  This  instruction  tells  the  boys  how 
to  select  their  seed  corn,  how  to  prepare  the  seed  bed, 
how  to  plant  the  corn,  how  to  cultivate  the  corn,  and  how 
to  care  for  the  crop.  The  corn  judge  who  has  been  with 
us  from  year  to  year  says  there  is  a  vast  difference  in  the 
boys'  ability  to  select  and  judge  corn  now  and  at  the  time 
we  began  this  work.  It  not  only  arouses  interest  among 
the  boys,  but  when  you  have  the  boys  interested,  the 
parents  become  interested  also,  and  while  the  object  of 


182  The  Rural  School 

this  work  is  to  improve  the  boys,  it  is  also  proving  bene- 
ficial to  the  boys'  fathers. 

"  The  girls  are  offered  prizes  for  such  work  as  the  best 
work  apron,  the  best  fancy  apron,  the  best  shirt  waist, 
the  best  dressed  doll,  the  best  loaf  of  bread,  the  best 
butter  cake,  the  best  sponge  cake,  the  best  can  of 
fruit  or  vegetables,  etc.  For  different  years  different 
products  may  be  worked.  Instruction  is  sent  to  the  girls 
which  is  prepared  by  the  Home  Economics  Department 
of  the  Maryville  State  Normal  School  and  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  This  work  is  done  through  the  teachers  of  the  county. 
The  teachers  enroll  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  work  and 
give  them  instruction  in  it.  We  believe  that  this  is  inter- 
esting the  young  people  of  the  county  in  the  farm  work 
and  that  many  of  them  will  be  kept  on  the  farm,  while 
without  this  work  they  would  not.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
keep  the  young  people  on  the  farm  if  we  can  really  get 
them  interested  in  the  work  there." 

THE  VIEW  POINT  OF  THE  COUNTRY 

If  authors  of  textbooks  and  courses  of  study  would 
recognize  more  fully  the  law  of  apperception  and  that 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  local  significance  that  should 
enter  into  every  course  of  study,  much  could  be  done  for 
our  rural  schools.  This  would,  doubtless,  require  a 
different  textbook  and  a  different  course  of  study  for  the 
rural  schools  from  that  used  in  city  schools.  Too  much 
of  the  work  in  our  books  and  courses  of  study  is  based 
on  the  supposition  that  pupils  have  had  the  experiences 
of  city  life  rather  than  the  experiences  of  country  life. 
The  pupil  interprets  new  experience  through  the  old,  and 
this  law  should  be  recognized  for  the  farmer's  child  as 


Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools  183 

well  as  for  the  merchant's  child.  The  teacher  can  do 
much  along  this  line  by  making  some  changes  here  and 
there  in  the  textbooks  and  courses  of  study  in  order  to 
make  them  conform  to  the  needs  of  the  locality.  For 
example,  if  the  community  is  a  wheat-growing  region,  the 
study  of  wheat  and  its  products  should  enter  largely  into 
the  work  of  the  school.  Here  is  a  place  to  begin,  for  the 
pupils  probably  know  something  about  wheat  growing 
and  they  can  be  interested  in  this  for  a  starting  point. 
If  our  teachers  would  teach  more  about  the  country  and 
less  about  the  city;  if  they  would  set  forth  the  health  of 
its  pure  air,  the  beauty  of  its  landscapes,  the  cooling  fresh- 
ness of  the  timber's  shade,  and  the  enchanting  attrac- 
tion of  the  babbling  brook;  if  they  could  show  that  toil 
is  honorable  and  that  farming  is  a  worthy  calling  —  the 
most  independent  and  honorable  on  earth;  if  they  could 
show  the  boys  and  girls  that  there  is  need  of  men  and 
women  of  brains  to  till  the  soil  and  raise  the  poultry  and 
live  stock  of  the  farm;  in  short,  if  the  teachers  could  lead 
the  boys  and  girls  to  appreciate  and  respect  farming, 
they  would  have  done  their  share  in  teaching  agriculture 
in  the  rural  schools. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  Principles  of  Agriculture.  1909.  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  $1.25. 

Butterfield,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress  {chapters  9  and 
16).    1908.    University  of  Chicago  Press,  $1.00. 

McKeever,  Farm  Boys  and  Girls  {chapters  16  and  17). 
1912.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.50. 

United  States  Country  Life  Commission,2?eporf.  1911. 
Sturgis  and  Walton,  $1.00. 

Warren,  Elements  of  Agriculture.  1909.  The  Mac- 
millan Co.,  $1.10. 


Chapter    XVII 

DUTIES    OF    THE    TEACHER 
TO  THE  DISTRICT 

To  Protect  Property.  —  In  the  minds  of  some,  "  Public 
property  is  my  property,  especially  if  I  want  to  destroy 
it."  This  thought  or  some  kindred  one  leads  to  the  wan- 
ton destruction  or  mutilation  of  a  great  deal  of  public 
property.  It  is  the  teacher's  imperative  duty  to  protect 
the  district's  property;  not  simply  by  force  of  arms,  but 
to  instruct  pupils  and  instill  into  their  minds  a  regard  for 
public  property.  This  instruction  should  take  broad 
grounds  and  teach  care  for  all  property  both  public  and 
private.  Pupils  should  understand  that  they  ought  to 
care  for  their  own  property,  too;  that  the  mere  fact  that 
they  own  a  thing  is  no  reason  why  they  should  destroy  or 
mutilate  it.  Boys  are  more  inclined  to  destroy  things 
than  girls  are,  and  it  takes  many  lessons  to  teach  them 
otherwise.  This  teaching  should  lead  to  lessons  in  econ- 
omy, care  and  regard  for  a  book,  economy  in  the  use  of 
pencils  and  tablets.  There  is  no  reason  why  an  example 
should  begin  in  the  middle  of  a  page  and  all  the  remainder 
of  the  page  be  wasted.  Often  a  few  scril^bles  on  a  page 
destroy  it  for  any  other  purpose.  These  are  small  mat- 
ters but  serve  as  a  basis  for  lessons  in  economy. 

Playing  in  the  house  leads  to  the  injury  of  the  school 
furniture,  as  one  of  the  least  of  its  results.     Careless 

184 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  185 

throwing  of  stones,  halls,  and  snowballs  is. the  cause  of 
many  broken  window  lights.  As  a  rule,  pupils  should 
stand  the  expense  of  their  careless  and  wanton  destruction 
of  property. 

Another  way  in  which  much  public  property  is  dam- 
aged is  by  defacing  with  knife  and  pencil.  It  is  hard 
to  keep  teachers  during  institutes  and  other  teachers' 
meetings  from  marking  on  the  desks  with  pencils;  after 
the  pencil  has  done  its  work,  the  boy  with  his  knife  com- 
pletes the  rude  and  destructive  decoration.  The  best 
means  of  preserving  school  furniture  from  this  mutilation 
of  pencil  and  knife  is  to  keep  the  desks  and  chairs  well 
cleaned  and  varnished  and  then  watch  for  the  first  pencil 
mark.  Hold  a  pupil  responsible  for  his  individual  seat. 
He  should  keep  it  from  day  to  day  as  clear  of  marks  as  it 
was  the  day  he  first  received  it. 

In  this  respect,  the  most  difficult  task  is  to  preserve  the 
outbuildings  in  clean  and  wholesome  condition.  This 
becomes  doubly  difficult  if  the  teacher  be  a  young  woman. 
But  these  are  the  source  of  much  evil,  and  the  teacher, 
man  or  woman,  must  face  the  responsibility.  The  teacher 
can  keep  track  of  the  condition  of  these  places,  and  if  the 
remedy  seems  beyond  her  reach  she  can  appeal  to  some 
member  of  the  board  through  his  wife,  if  necessary.  No 
such  difficulty  confronts  the  male  teacher,  and  he  will 
have  no  excuse  for  neglecting  his  duty  in  this  respect. 

If  school  officials  could  be  brought  to  understand  that 
property  well  maintained  will  command  tespect  and  will 
be  less  liable  to  abuse,  it  would  make  it  much  easier  for 
teachers  to  protect  school  buildings  and  their  equipments. 
The  outhouse  that  is  well  cleaned  in  the  fall  before  school 
begins,  and  from  which  all  marks,  obscene  language  and 
pictures  are  erased  or  removed  by  a  coat  of  paint,  will  be 
much  more  easily  kept  clean.    It  would  be  hard  to  find 


186  The  Rural  School 

any  one  who  would  go  into  a  schoolroom  or  oj0fice  and  with 
knife  carelessly  deface  a  new  and  brightly  varnished  desk 
or  chair.  Seldom  could  a  man  be  found  who  would  go 
into  a  merchant's  office  and  thoughtlessly  cut  his  desk 
or  chairs,  but  there  is  many  a  man  who  will  sit  in  front  of 
his  store  and  whittle  his  boxes  to  pieces.  Not  often  will  a 
boy  be  found  who  will  cut  a  notch  in  a  brightly  varnished 
seat,  but  there  are  many  who  have  rudely  carved  old, 
rough,  unpolished  desks  and  gave  little  thought  to  what 
they  were  doing.  The  best  way  to  protect  public  prop- 
erty is  to  keep  it  in  repair  and  well  painted  or  varnished. 

To  Maintain  the  Good  Name  of  the  School.  —  As  a 
rule,  the  patrons  of  a  district  take  pride  in  their  school 
and  are  pleased  to  learn  of  its  success.  The  new  teacher 
coming  into  the  district  for  the  first  time  should  take 
advantage  of  this  feeling  and  try  to  make  this  year's 
school  add  to  its  already  good  reputation.  It  often 
takes  tact  and  enthusiasm  to  get  the  cooperation  of  the 
pupils.  They  sometimes  think  that  it  is  their  place  to 
work  against  the  teacher  and  make  the  school  as  poor  as 
possible,  but  the  really  tactful  teacher  can  change  their 
minds  and  transform  this  opposition  into  cooperation. 

The  teacher  can  generally  get  this  cooperation  and  suc- 
ceed in  building  up  the  school  by  presenting  the  truth  of 
the  matter  just  as  it  is.  Pupils  should  be  very  much  in- 
terested in  the  school.  It  is  for  them  and  not  for  the 
teacher.  He  gets  his  salary  and,  perhaps,  some  reputation; 
they  are  getting  their  preparation  for  life;  and,  if  the 
school  fails,  they  fail.  The  presentation  of  such  truths 
as  the  above  will  often  gain  for  the  teacher  a  majority  of 
the  school,  and,  if  the  teacher  is  wise,  he  will  use  this  ma- 
jority for  building  up  sentiment  for  a  good  school.  Where 
this  cannot  be  done,  the  teacher  must  not  despair,  but 
try  some  other  plan. 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  187 

Another  way  of  building  up  school  spirit  is  by  contests 
with  other  schools.  These  contests  may  be  in  the  nature 
of  ciphering  matches,  spelling  contests,  or  some  form  of 
athletic  sport.  Perhaps  nothing  will  build  up  school 
spirit  more  than  a  good  team  of  some  kind.  It  may  be  a 
basket  ball  team,  a  baseball  team,  a  track  team,  or  a 
spelling  team.  The  only  trouble  with  these  team  contests 
is  that  they  may  absorb  all  the  energy  of  the  school  and 
thus  defeat  the  very  object  for  which  the  school  is  striving. 
There  should  alwaj^s  be  a  rule  that  no  one  can  play  on  a 
team  who  does  not  keep  his  school  work  up  to  grade. 

To  Teach  a  Good  School.  —  In  the  chapter  followang 
we  shall  speak  of  teaching  a  good  school  as  an  oppor- 
tunity; here  we  wish  to  present  it  as  a  duty.  That  the 
teacher  should  give  the  best  that  he  has,  cannot  be  em- 
phasized too  strongly  as  a  duty,  nor  held  out  too  invitingly 
as  an  opportunity.  His  energy,  his  personality,  and  his 
life  with  the  best  that  it  contains  should  be  put  into  his 
school.  School  teaching  is  not  shoveling  dirt,  it  is  not 
plowing  corn,  it  is  not  merely  making  money.  It  is  more 
than  any  or  all  of  those.  It  is  building  lives,  not  for  time 
but  for  eternity.  The  work  should  be  faithfully  and 
thoroughly  done. 

Tests  of  a  Good  School.  —  Some  maj''  be  helped  if  they  see 
more  clearly  what  is  meant  by  a  good  school,  hence  a 
number  of  tests  of  a  good  school  will  be  enumerated. 
These  are  more  or  less  outward  tests  and  neglect  that  in- 
ward spirit  or  bond  of  sympathy  which  sometimes  exists 
between  the  teacher  and  pupils  and  makes  a  fairly  good 
school  out  of  what  otherwise  would  be  a  very  poor  school. 
The  following  are  tests  of  a  good  school. 

(1)  Orderliness.  —  By  this  is  meant  a  school  that  does 
things  systematically,  has  a  program  and  follows  it,  has 
an  orderly  way  for  the  classes  to  pass  and  maintains  that 


188  The  Rural  School 

order.  Everything  is  done  "  decently  and  in  order."  Of 
course,  an  orderly  school  will  be  a  reasonably  quiet 
school.  The  quietness  is  a  result  of  the  order,  and  not 
order  the  result  of  the  quietness;  for  we  can  imagine  a 
very  quiet  school  that  is  not  orderly.  An  orderly  school 
is  the  result  of  system.  It  is  worth  while  to  be  sys- 
tematic in  school  work,  not  simply  for  order,  but  for  the 
lessons  it  teaches  the  pupils.  The  teacher;  who  keeps 
his  desk  in  order  and  requires  his  pupils  to  do  the  same, 
who  is  careful  and  neat  in  all  work  that  he  puts  on  the 
board  and  requires  pupils  to  be  the  same,  who  is  system- 
atic in  all  the  arrangements  of  the  school,  will  teach  les- 
sons that  will  be  practical  and  worth  more  than  many 
of  the  lessons  learned  from  a  textbook. 

(2)  Punctuality.  —  In  the  second  place,  a  good  school 
should  be  punctual;  not  only  should  it  do  things  in  an 
orderly  manner,  but  it  should  do  them  on  time.  School 
should  begin  on  time,  close  on  time,  have  recesses  on  time, 
call  classes  on  time,  do  everything  on  time.  This  is  another 
of  the  practical  lessons  that  the  school  should  teach.  The 
element  of  time  enters  into  every  transaction  of  business, 
and  the  business  man  who  has  learned  to  be  punctual  in 
boyhood  has  the  advantage  over  the  one  who  has  to  learn 
this  in  the  school  of  experience.  In  order  to  be  success- 
ful, the  business  man  must  be  punctual,  his  obligations 
must  be  met  on  time,  —  not  a  day  or  two  late. 

One  of  the  sins  against  punctuality  is  tardiness.  This 
is  one  of  the  school  evils,  and  one  that  is  hard  to  break  up 
in  some  localities.  It  is  a  detriment  to  the  school  in  that 
it  disturbs  the  progress  of  the  work  and  distracts  the 
attention  of  the  whole  school  for  the  time  being.  It  is 
one  of  the  evils  against  which  every  school  should  contend 
and  against  which  the  good  school  is  more  or  less  success- 
ful.   How  successfully  to  prevent  tardiness  is  a  question 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  189 

that  has  never  been  answered  to  the  satisfaction  of  teach- 
ers. There  have  been  many  devices  offered,  and  some  of 
them  have  been  quite  effective  under  certain  teachers 
and  under  favorable  circumstances.  These  devices  take 
the  form  of  (a)  punishments,  (6)  attractions,  and  (c)  senti- 
ment. 

(a)  Punishments:  Some  have  the  rule  that  every  one 
who  has  been  tardy  must  make  up  the  time  after  school 
or  at  recess.  This  conforms  to  the  rule  for  punishment, 
viz.,  that  the  punishment  should  be  a  sequence  of  the 
offence.  While  this  punishment  seems  just,  it  has  its 
faults  and  does  not  always  accomplish  the  result  desired. 
The  trouble  is  that  it  deprives  the  pupil  of  his  playtime 
and  all  that  this  means  to  the  growing  child,  and  yet  does 
not  always  punish  the  guilty  party,  for  it  is  often  the 
parents  who  are  to  blame.  Some  teachers  have  imposed 
certain  tasks  such  as  writing  hsts  of  words,  or  committing 
to  memory  certain  poems  or  other  selections.  This  is  a 
very  pernicious  custom,  for  learning  should  not  be  classed 
with  punishments  but  be  made  enjoyable  and  attractive. 
One  may  have  the  pupil  make  up  his  lesson  as  a  concession 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  for  the  good  of  the  pupil,  but 
not  as  a  pimishment.  In  prescribing  a  punishment  for 
tardiness,  the  teacher  should  be  sure  that  it  is  the  pupil 
who  is  to  blame  and  not  his  parents.  Many  teachers 
require  written  excuses  from  the  parents  for  tardiness. 
This  is  something  of  a  punishment  of  parents  who  have 
to  write  them.  In  a  rural  district  where  the  people  are 
not  used  to  this  requirement,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher 
to  consult  with  the  board  before  trying  to  enforce  it. 

(6)  Attractions:  Some  are  quite  successful  in  making 
the  opening  exercises  so  interesting  and  so  attractive  that 
pupils  are  loath  to  be  absent  from  them.  This  may  be 
done  in  various  ways.     Some  read  an  interesting  book, 


190  The  Rural  School 

others  make  the  opening  exercises  attractive  by  having 
a  program  made  up  of  songs,  stories,  recitations,  current 
events,  or  quotations.  This  method  often  succeeds  well, 
as  it  reaches  the  parents  in  an  indirect  way,  when  they 
are  the  ones  at  fault.  If  one  can  interest  the  children, 
through  them  he  will  interest  the  parents  also,  and  thus 
bring  about  an  earlier  hour  for  breakfast. 

Many  county  superintendents  are  using  perfect  at- 
tendance certificates.  These  consist  of  three  grades  of 
certificates:  first,  those  which  are  given  at  the  end  of 
each  month  to  those  pupils  who  have  been  neither  absent 
nor  tardy  for  the  month.  When  any  pupil  gets  six  of 
these,  the  county  superintendent  issues  to  this  pupil  a 
larger  certificate.  Again,  when  he  has  received  three  or 
four  of  these  large  certificates,  he  may  present  them  to 
the  superintendent  and  receive  a  large  diploma  which 
he  can  frame  and  keep  as  a  memento.  This  system  has 
been  found  quite  successful  in  preventing  tardiness 
and  absence. 

(c)  Sentiment:  But  if  the  teacher  can  build  up  a  senti- 
ment for  punctuality,  he  has  done  something  lasting  and 
of  real  benefit  to  the  individual  pupils  of  the  school.  A 
sentiment  can  be  aroused  by  presenting  the  business 
necessity  of  being  punctual.  A  man  once  asked  for  an 
interview  with  the  president.  He  received  the  terse  tele- 
gram "  To-morrow  at  ten."  He  had  barely  time  to  catch 
his  train  and  arrived  in  Washington  at  nine  o'clock  and 
made  his  way  immediately  to  the  White  House.  When  he 
finally  gained  admittance  to  the  president's  private  office 
the  clock  was  striking  ten.  After  his  interview,  he  asked 
the  president  what  would  have  been  the  consequence  had 
he  been  late,  and  was  told  that  he  could  not  have  gained 
a  hearing,  for  the  president's  time  was  all  allotted,  and 
each  one  must  use  his  allotted  time  or  be  refused  an  audi- 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  191 

ence  for  that  day,  or,  perhaps,  for  several  days.  The 
earnest  presentation  of  the  importance  of  being  on  time 
should  accompany  all  efforts  for  the  prevention  of  tardi- 
ness. It  is  sometimes  a  habit  that  takes  time  to  over- 
come, so  that  the  teacher  who  does  not  succeed  at  first 
should  not  become  discouraged. 

(3)  Respect.  —  The  good  school  is  a  respectful  school, 
respectful  to  the  teacher,  respectful  to  okl  people,  respect- 
ful to  one  another.  One  of  the  first  things  that  an  Ameri- 
can boy  should  learn  is  to  respect  the  rights  of  others. 
Some  never  learn  it,  and  if  our  country  were  made  up  of 
such  people,  this  would  be  a  poor  country  in  which  to 
live.  The  conditions  in  many  homes  are  not  suited  to 
teach  this  lesson  in  its  concrete  form.  In  the  common 
schools,  where  every  one  is  on  a  common  footing,  the  child 
should  early  learn  this  lesson.  The  playground  often 
teaches  this  lesson  in  a  forcible  manner  and  the  teacher 
should  see  to  it  that  fair  play  and  equal  rights  are  its  code. 

In  these  days  of  soft  discipline,  parents  are  often  lax 
with  their  children  and  do  not  require  respect  for  elders; 
indeed,  it  is  often  true  that  the  child  demands  subservi- 
ence to  his  will.  It  is  said  that  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby  per- 
mitted the  "  fag  "  system  in  that  school  for  the  good  of 
the  "fags."  These  new  boys  that  entered  school  came  from 
homes  where  they  were  petted  and  pampered  by  servants 
and  made  to  believe  that  they  were  "  lords  of  creation." 
They  had  never  worked  nor  respected  the  rights  of  any 
one,  they  were  almost  wholly  selfish.  But  when  one  of 
them  entered  school  he  became  the  "  fag  "  of  an  upper- 
class  man.  He  blacked  his  boots,  swept  his  room,  carried 
out  his  slops  and  ran  errands  for  him.  From  the  cuffs  he 
received  and  the  odd  jobs  he  was  compelled  to  do  for 
others,  he  learned  that  there  were  others  besides  himself 
who  had  rights.    Doubtless,  Dr.  Arnold  was  right  in  his 


192  The  Rural  School 

conclusion  that  the  system  was  a  good  thing  for  the  boys 
that  entered  Rugby;  they  learned  to  respect  the  rights 
of  others  and  became  useful  citizens,  when  otherwise  they 
might  have  become  sordid  bigots. 

(4)  Study.  —  The  great  business  of  the  school,  and 
especially  of  the  rural  school,  is  study,  and,  if  the  school 
is  not  studying,  it  is  not  sticking  close  to  business.  A 
visitor  has  but  to  cast  his  eyes  around  in  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  school  is  working,  and,  if  it  is  not  work- 
ing, something  is  wrong.  The  teacher  is  not  requiring 
thorough  preparation  for  the  recitation,  the  conditions 
in  the  schoolroom  are  not  suital)le  for  study,  or  there  is 
a  lack  of  interest.  It  is  not  a  good  school.  It  may  be  dis- 
orderly, not  punctual,  to  some  degree  disrespectful,  and  yet 
be  a  fairly  good  school ;  but,  if  it  is  not  a  studious  school, 
if  it  does  not  work,  if  it  does  not  think,  it  misses  the  very 
thing  for  which  it  is  being  maintained.  Lack  of  studious- 
ness  often  comes  from  noise  or  confusion,  from  distrac- 
tions from  within  or  without,  from  the  teacher  doing  the 
greater  part  of  the  reciting,  from  not  having  a  properly 
arranged  study  program,  from  lack  of  enthusiasm  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  or  pupils. 

(5)  Enthusiasm.  —  The  good  school  should  be  enthu- 
siastic. Naturally  enthusiasm  must  originate  with  the 
teacher;  one  can  hardly  conceive  of  a  school  being  en- 
thusiastic when  the  teacher  is  a  "  dead  "  teacher  or  more 
interested  in  other  things  than  in  the  school.  Interest 
begets  interest  and  enthusiasm  begets  enthusiasm.  The 
way  to  get  an  enthusiastic  school  is  for  the  teacher  to  be 
enthusiastic  himself.  A  live  teacher  will  develop  a  live 
school.  For,  as  is  oft  quoted,  "  As  the  teacher  is,  so  is 
the  school." 

(6)  Growth.  —  Finally,  the  good  school  will  be  a  grow- 
ing school.     This  may  mean  that  additional  pupils  will 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  193 

enroll;  the  older  pupils,  who  thought  that  they  would 
not  go  to  school  this  winter,  will  change  their  minds  and 
conclude  that  as  the  school  is  such  a  good  one,  they  will 
go  another  term.  It  may  mean  that  pupils  will  come  from 
other  districts  when  their  school  has  closed.  The  fame  of 
the  school  has  extended  beyond  the  borders  of  the  dis- 
trict and  strangers  are  knocking  at  the  door  for  admis- 
sion. But  it  surely  does  mean  that  it  is  growing  from 
within;  that  it  is  getting  better  from  week  to  week  and 
from  month  to  month;  that  new  plans  are  being  laid  and 
new  and  better  regulations  are  being  introduced.  It 
means  that  the  school  is  not  dying  but  is  growing;  there 
is  no  half  way  place,  it  is  either  improving  or  retrograding. 

TO  PUPILS 

To  Classify  Aright.  —  One  of  the  first  duties  of  the 
teacher  is  to  classify  pupils  aright.  This  is  sometimes  a 
difficult  task,  for  the  teacher  may  not  have  accurate  in- 
formation on  which  to  base  a  judgment;  and,  second, 
the  pupil  and  parents  ofttimes  desire  that  the  pupil  be 
put  into  a  class  too  far  advanced  for  him.  In  the  first 
instance,  the  teacher  will  have  to  suspend  judgment  for 
the  time  being,  until  better  information  can  be  obtained. 
This  suspension  of  judgment  should  be  brief,  for  the 
pupil  may  be  losing  precious  time.  As  to  the  second  hin- 
drance, the  teacher  will  try  in  the  most  discreet  way  pos- 
sible to  convince  pupil  and  parent  of  their  mistake  in  the 
matter,  but  may  in  some  instances  have  to  go  contrary  to 
their  wishes  and  put  the  pupil  into  the  class  where  he  be- 
longs. It  is  for  the  best  interests  of  the  pupil  that  he  be 
placed  in  his  proper  classification. 

To  See  That  Conditions  are  Favorable  for  Study.  —  It 
was  said  above  that  the  school  might  not  be  a  st'idious 


194  The  Rural  School 

school  because  conditions  were  not  favorable  for  study. 
One  of  the  reasons  for  keeping  order  in  the  schoolroom  is 
to  make  conditions  so  that  a  pupil  can  study  if  he  so  de- 
sires. Whatever  the  teacher's  ideal  of  order,  discipline 
or  quiet  may  be,  this  one  thing  must  guide  and  govern  it. 
The  writer  remembers  the  instruction  of  an  institute 
teacher  of  a  good  many  years  ago.  He  said  that  in  his 
room  at  home  he  had  this  motto,  "  Sacred  To  Study," 
and  that  the  order  of  the  room  was  such  that  at  any  time 
during  school  hours  a  pupil  could  come  into  this  room  and, 
undisturbed,  sit  down  to  study.  This  is  a  high  ideal 
for  the  conditions  of  a  schoolroom,  but  not  too  high  for 
which  to  strive. 

To  Give  Judicious  Help.  —  In  the  process  of  his  work 
a  pupil  usually  comes  to  a  place  where  he  needs  some 
help,  and  it  is  the  mark  of  a  good  teacher  to  know  how  and 
when  to  give  help.  Too  much  help  makes  a  weakling  of  a 
student,  and  not  to  help  at  the  proper  time  is  likely  to 
discourage  him.  Too  often  the  help  is  telling  or  doing  the 
work  for  the  pupil.  This  satisfies  the  average  student, 
but  is  not  judicious,  for  telling  does  not  insure  under- 
standing, and  doing  the  work  for  another  does  not  indi- 
cate that  he  can  do  it  afterwards.  The  judicious  teacher 
does  not  tell,  when  by  questions  he  can  lead  the  pupil  to 
see  or  work  out  his  problem  for  himself.  As  a  rule  the 
student  should  be  encouraged  to  go  as  far  as  he  can  with 
his  problem  or  proposition  so  that  the  teacher  can  get  his 
line  of  thought  or  reasoning;  then  the  teacher  can  come 
in  with  a  question  or  two  and  lead  him  to  complete  his 
thought  and  solve  his  pro])lem  or  explain  his  proposition. 

To  Direct  Intellectual  Growth.  —  The  teacher  should 
be  interested  in  the  intellectual  growth  of  his  pupils.  To 
watch  the  growth,  to  sec  that  the  thinking  is  logical  and 
not  biased  by  prejudice,  to  see  that  the  will  does  not  over- 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  195 

step  the  bounds  of  reason,  are  parts  of  the  dehcate  work 
of  the  teacher.  It  is  especially  in  the  study  of  civics, 
history,  and  literature  that  the  teacher  can  get  into  the 
inner  chambers  of  the  pupil's  thinking  and  learn  his  bent 
of  mind.  It  is  then  through  judicious  direction  that  his 
mental  growth  can  be  cared  for. 

To  Direct  Moral  Growth.  —  Closely  connected  with 
intellectual  growth  is  moral  growth.  The  pupil's  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong,  the  expression  of  his  moral  judg- 
ments, his  attitude  of  mind  toward  moral  issues  of  comi- 
try,  city,  and  school,  should  all  receive  the  teacher's  at- 
tention and  direction.  The  playground  is  another  field 
for  the  cultivation  of  moral  ideas.  The  teacher  should 
see  that  its  code  is  a  just  one. 

To  Give  Suggestions  as  to  Physical  Well-Being.  —  It 
is  in  youth  that  many  bad  habits  of  sitting,  standing, 
walking,  etc.,  are  contracted.  Directions  about  eating, 
sleeping,  bathing,  etc.,  should  be  a  part  of  the  program. 
The  child  with  wet  feet  or  clothing  should  be  dried;  the 
child  with  dirty  hands  or  face  should  be  washed;  the 
child  with  "  tousled  "  head  should  be  combed,  and  his 
foul  body  bathed.  To  accomplish  this  will  require  much 
tact  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

Then  the  teacher  should  have  a  good  stock  of  games 
and  plays  so  that  the  pupils  will  not  lack  for  healthy  school 
sports  and  exercises  to  build  up  a  strong  and  robust 
physique.  "  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  "  is  as  much 
to  be  desired  to-day  as  when  this  statement  was  first 
uttered. 

To  Inspire  with  Higher  Ideals. —  The  teacher  that 
leaves  a  school  and  has  not  left  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
a  desire  for  better  and  higher  things  has  not  fulfilled 
all  of  his  mission.  Life  in  a  good  many  of  their  homes 
is  sordid,  and  they  need  the  touch  of  a  loving  hand  and 


196  The  Rural  School 

the  comfort  of  cheering  words.  This  is  not  merely  a 
duty  but  a  privilege  and  a  great  opportunity  that  comes 
especially  to  the  rural  teacher.  Tliis  topic  will  be  found 
treated  more  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  the  Oppor- 
tunity of  a  Rural  Teacher. 

TO   THE  COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENT 

To  Keep  Accurate  Records.  —  The  superintendent, 
with  officers  of  higher  rank,  is  interested  in  compiling  and 
reporting  school  statistics.  The  apportioning  of  the 
state  school  funds  is  based  in  various  ways  on  the  reports 
of  the  county  superintendent.  He  depends  upon  the 
reports  he  receives  from  teachers  and  school  officers  for 
the  data  for  his  report.  For  tliis  reason  he  is  interested 
that  the  teacher  keep  and  make  out  accurate  reports. 

To  Make  All  Reports  Promptly.  —  Not  only  should 
the  reports  be  accurate,  but  they  should  be  made  out 
promptly.  It  takes  no  longer  to  make  out  the  report  the 
day  it  is  due  than  two  or  three  days  after,  and  often  it 
can  be  made  out  much  more  easily  and  more  quickly 
while  the  facts  are  fresh  in  mind.  For  example,  a  tru- 
ancy report  can  be  made  much  more  readily  at  the  time 
that  it  is  due  than  a  week  or  ten  days  later,  after  the  facts 
have  been  forgotten;  then,  too,  a  report  made  promptly 
is  worth  much  more,  for  the  pupil  is  losing  time  from 
school  while  the  teacher  is  holding  the  report.  It  is  a 
relief  to  the  teacher  to  know  that  his  work  is  done 
promptly,  and  it  commends  the  teacher  to  the  superin- 
tendent. He  would  like  to  have  his  schools  filled  with 
teachers  who  are  in  the  habit  of  doing  things  on  time, 
for  it  saves  him  time  and  labor.  In  any  business  trans- 
action it  pays  to  be  prompt. 

To  Cooperate  in  His  Plans.  —  The  good  superintend- 
ent always  has  some  plans  for  his  schools  that  he  would 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  197 

like  to  see  put  into  effect.  It  is  through  the  teachers  and 
through  them  alone  that  he  can  put  these  plans  into  oper- 
ation. The  teacher  may  not  see  the  need  of  them,  for  he 
has  not  studied  the  subject  as  the  superintendent  has, 
but  loyalty  to  his  superior  requires  him  to  follow  the  lead 
of  his  superintendent.  If  the  superintendent  wishes  to 
interest  the  boys  in  agricultural  contests  or  the  girls  in 
cooking  or  sewing  contests,  it  is  only  when  the  teachers 
cooperate  with  him  that  he  can  make  these  a  success. 
He  looks  from  a  higher  elevation  and  has  a  broader  view 
of  the  school  interests  of  the  county  and  should  be  ac- 
cepted as  the  educational  leader.  The  results  can  be  left 
CO  his  account  to  be  answered  for  at  the  next  election. 

Following  the  course  of  study  is  important  among  the 
many  things  that  the  live  superintendent  wants  done. 
In  some  states  where  this  plan  has  been  in  operation  for 
a  number  of  years,  it  may  be  a  matter  of  course;  but  in 
other  states  it  still  needs  emphasis.  The  course  of  study 
simply  outlines  the  work  to  be  accomplished  in  a  week  or 
month,  as  the  case  ma}^  be,  and  this  can  be  followed  even 
though  the  school  is  not  well  graded.  If  the  school  is  not 
graded,  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be,  but  this  cannot 
be  accomplished  all  in  a  day  without  great  detriment  to 
individual  pupils.  It  should  be  a  gradual  pushing  for- 
ward in  the  subjects  in  which  the  class  is  behind  and  a 
letting  up  in  those  studies  in  which  the  class  is  in  advance 
of  grade. 

By  this  process,  the  school  should  be  quite  well 
graded  in  two  or  three  years.  Of  course,  the  new 
pupils  should  never  get  out  of  grade.  The  teacher  owes 
it,  not  only  to  the  superintendent  but  also  to  the  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  county,  to  follow  the  course  of 
study  and  grade  the  school  as  it  can  be  done  without 
detriment  to  the  pupils. 


198  The  Rural  School 

TO  THE  NEIGHBORHOOD 

The  teacher  should  consider  that  he  is  one  of  the  neigh- 
borhood and  should  lend  his  assistance  for  the  upbuilding 
of  its  every  interest,  social,  intellectual,  and  moral.  What 
he  can  do  depends  very  much  upon  the  conditions  and 
needs  of  the  neighborhood.  It  may  be  that  the  young 
people  very  much  need  a  leader  in  their  social  affairs. 
Then  the  teacher  who  knows  how  to  lead  an  evening 
gathering  and  entertain  a  house  full  of  young  people  in 
unobjectionable  amusements,  has  a  rare  opportunity  of 
uplifting  these  young  people  and  leading  them  into  the 
enjoyment  of  a  pleasant  and  helpful  pastime.  We  are 
social  beings  and  must  mingle,  one  sex  with  the  other,  but 
a  sharp  line  should  be  drawn  between  improper  associa- 
tions, and  those  which  are  innocent  and  healthful.  For- 
tunate is  the  district  that  employs  a  teacher  who  can 
discern  between  the  bad  and  the  good,  the  better  and  the 
best,  in  social  life. 

Again,  the  neighborhood  may  be  ready  for  advanced 
steps  in  agriculture,  domestic  science,  or  hygienic  condi- 
tions of  the  home.  The  teacher  who  knows  how  and  is 
willing  to  help  bring  about  these  conditions  can  be  of 
great  service  to  the  neighborhood.  This  is  the  age  for 
the  improvement  of  country  life,  and  the  teacher  should 
be  in  the  advance  guard  of  the  procession.  With  dis- 
cretion and  tact,  the  teacher  can  give  many  valuable 
hints  of  how  the  homes  may  be  l)eautified  and  made 
more  sanitary;  how  some  of  the  drudgery  may  be  avoided 
and  the  health  and  happiness  of  the  family  be  improved; 
how  life  may  be  stripped  of  its  sordidness  and  be  made 
useful  and  happy  in  serving  others. 

By  placing  himself  on  friendly  terms  with  the  people 
of  the  community,  the  teacher  can  often  receive  as  well 


Duties  of  the  Teacher  199 

as  give  information.  The  boy  or  girl  who  goes  from  town 
into  the  country  to  teach  school  has  a  good  many  things 
to  learn  and  can  well  afford  to  listen  to  those  who  know 
more  about  comitry  life  and  rural  conchtions  than  one 
who  has  been  brought  up  in  towTi  can  possibly  know. 
Wrapped  up  in  the  rough  exterior  of  many  an  old  farmer 
is  a  generous  suppl}^  of  good  common  sense,  and,  if  the 
young  teacher  can  get  the  use  of  this  free  of  cost,  it  will 
be  courteous  and  wise  to  receive  it  and  use  it. 

TO   SELF 

In  all  this  multiplicity  of  duties  the  teacher  must  not 
forget  his  duty  to  himself.  He  has  his  health  to  preserve, 
for  no  one  who  has  lost  health  can  do  the  work  of  a  suc- 
cessful teacher.  He  must  have  some  time  for  himself  to 
improve  his  mentality  and  to  grow  in  vigor  of  mind  as 
well  as  in  vigor  of  body.  But  all  of  this  attention  to  self 
must  have  in  it  an  altruistic  spirit.  The  thought  upper- 
most should  be,  "  I  am  here  to  serve  this  neighborhood 
and  I  must  do  nothing  to  impair  me  for  that  service." 

REFERENCES 

Dinsmore,  Teaching  a  District  School  {chapter  2).  1908. 
American  Book  Co.,  $1.00. 

Seeley,  New  School  Management  (chapter  18).  1903. 
Hinds,  $1.25. 


Chapter  XVm 

THE   OPPORTUNITY  OF  A  RURAL  TEACHER 
THE  LESSER  OPPORTUNITIES 

To  Earn  a  Salary.  —  To  the  average  person  starting 
out  to  teach  a  rural  school,  it  is  an  opportunity  to  make 
forty  or  fifty  dollars  a  month,  and  to  some  this  is  really 
and  truly  an  opportunity.  This  may  be  the  first  time  in 
their  lives  that  they  have  had  the  privilege  of  earning  some 
money  for  themselves.  Merely  to  be  able  to  buy  a  good 
suit  of  clothes  often  gives  a  man  new  confidence  in  him- 
self and  higher  ambitions  in  life. 

A  Stepping-Stone.  —  To  others  it  is  an  opportunity  for 
eking  out  an  existence  while  they  are  preparing  for  some 
other  occupation,  —  studying  law  or  medicine.  The 
teacher  of  a  large  country  school  has  a  rare  opportunity 
to  learn  something  and  to  learn  it  thoroughly.  There  is 
no  better  place  to  get  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  com- 
mon branches  than  in  a  district  school.  Many  a  young 
person  has  testified  to  the  fact  that  he  learned  more  the 
first  year  of  teaching  than  in  any  previous  year  of  his  life. 
While  teaching  a  country  school  and  earning  a  comfort- 
able living,  many  a  young  man  has  prepared  himself  for 
the  study  of  medicine  or  law. 

The  making  of  the  rural  school  a  stepping-stone  to  some 
other  profession  has  been  to  the  great  detriment  of  the 
schools.  Teaching  the  school  becomes  a  secondary  mat- 
ter and  the  school  does  not  receive  the  best  thought  of 

200 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    201 

the  teacher.  Until  the  school  shall  receive  the  best  the 
teacher  has  to  give,  both  in  thought  and  interest,  the 
school  will  suffer  and  not  reach  a  very  high  standard. 
The  rural  schools  have  been  suffering  from  this  practice 
more  than  the  city  schools,  for  teachers  are  "  tried  out  " 
in  the  rural  schools  and,  if  they  prove  successful  and  want 
to  continue  the  work,  the  chances  are  that  they  will  find 
a  position  in  some  village  or  city  school.  This  practice 
has  resulted  in  the  cities  getting  the  experienced  teachers 
and  those  Avho  have  fitted  themselves  for  the  work,  while 
the  rural  schools  have  so  far  been  compelled  to  take 
the  remainder. 

THE   GREAT   OPPORTUNITIES 

To  Teach  a  Good  School.  —  The  first  great  opportu- 
nity for  the  person  who  goes  out  into  the  country  to  teach, 
is  to  teach  a  good  school.  With  so  many  young,  inexperi- 
enced teachers,  with  so  many  teaching  just  for  the  money, 
and  with  those  who  are  making  school-teaching  a  step- 
ping-stone to  some  other  profession  and  giving  only  a 
part  of  their  energies  to  the  school  work,  the  rural  schools 
are  sadly  in  need  of  good  teachers,  teachers  who  know  how 
to  teach  and  are  willing  to  put  their  life  and  energy  into 
it.  One  of  these  schools  which  has  seldom  or  never  had  a 
really  good  teacher  will  appreciate  intelligent  and  inspir- 
ing work  in  the  schoolroom. 

To  Inspire  to  High  Ideals.  —  A  greater  opportunity 
than  has  thus  far  been  indicated  lies  in  the  finding  of  boys 
and  girls  and  inspiring  them  to  higher  ideals  and  aspira- 
tions. A  farmer  may  be  found  in  the  geogTaphy  class,  a 
physician  in  the  physiology  class,  an  artist  in  the  drawing 
classes,  etc.  After  all,  the  great  work  of  the  teacher  is 
inspirational,  and  the  teacher  who  can  lay  his  hand  on 
the  shoulder  of  a  boy  and  inspire  him  to  a  great  future, 


202  The  Rural  School 

has  done  more  than  the  one  who  has  taught  him  how  to 
solve  every  problem  in  the  arithmetic. 

He  will  not  have  failed,  if  he  has  found  one  boy  and 
placed  his  feet  on  the  solid  rock  of  a  nobler  ambition. 

The  story  of  liow  Miss asked  John  to  stay  after 

school  one  night  illustrates  the  point  at  hand.  John  was 
asked  to  remain  after  school.  He  stayed  and  pondered 
what  he  would  say  when  he  was  confronted  with  some  of 
his  misdemeanors,  but  judge  his  surprise  when  the  teacher, 
after  all  were  gone,  stepped  up  to  him  and  said,  "  John, 
I  want  you  to  go  to  college."  That  is  the  idea;  inspiration 
pure  and  simple  is  what  lasts  and  is  still  working  when 
the  knowledge  of  textbooks  becomes  "  ancient  and  for- 
gotten lore." 

Then  too,  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  country  are  the  ones 
who  are  ready  and  willing  to  receive  this  inspiration. 
The  boys  of  town  have  so  many  opportunities,  and  at 
the  same  time  so  many  temptations,  that  they  are  not  so 
susceptible  to  good  influences. 

Extension  of  Teacher's  Influence.  —  The  teacher's 
sphere  of  work  need  not  be  limited  to  the  school.  The 
whole  neighborhood  may  be  in  need  of  some  one  to  lead 
them  out  of  their  sordid  lives  into  higher  and  more  com- 
plete living.  This  may  be  accomplished  through  a  moth- 
er's club,  a  literary  club,  or  social  entertainments.  Tact 
and  good  judgment  are  necessary  to  determine  what  is 
best  to  be  done.  It  is  quite  plain  that  the  teacher  should 
become  one  of  the  neighborhood  and  take  an  interest  in 
its  welfare  and  enlightenment.  Jean  Mitchell  (see  Jean 
Mitchell's  School  "  by  Wray)  succeeded  in  making  the 
school  the  social  center  of  the  neighborhood  and  inter- 
esting all  in  the  work  of  the  school. 

Making  the  school  the  source  of  inspiration  for  civic  and 
social  uplift  is  not  the  dream  of  an  enthusiast  nor  the 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    203 

story  of  a  fluent  writer,  l)ut  it  has  actually  been  worked 
out  by  rural  teachers  in  various  states. 

WHAT    HAS    BEEN    ACCOMPLISHED    BY    TEACHERS    IN 
COUNTRY    SCHOOLS 

From  the  fact  that  the  three  R's  have  dominated  the 
rural  curriculum  for  so  long  a  time,  too  many  teachers 
have  come  to  think  that  nothing  out  of  the  regular  rou- 
tine can  be  accomplished  in  a  one-teacher  school.  But 
to  all  who  think  in  this  way,  we  commend  a  careful  study 
of  what  has  been  done  by  these  several  teachers. 

In  Kansas.  —  Mrs.  Emily  K.  Hoelcel  has  been  able, 
through  energy,  enthusiasm,  and  hard  work,  to  accom- 
plish many  things  usually  thought  to  be  impossible  in  a 
one-teacher  school.  While  the  equipment  with  which 
she  had  to  work  was  better  than  is  often  found  in  a 
country  school,  yet  very  much  of  it  can  be  had,  if  the 
teacher  has  the  will,  and  most  of  it  Mrs.  Hoelcel  would 
have  wherever  she  might  teach.  It  was  a  large,  clean, 
roomy  schoolhouse,  freshly  painted  on  the  exterior  and 
in  the  interior,  but  not  a  modern  building.  At  the  en- 
trance of  the  building  was  a  hall.  To  the  right  in  this 
hall  the  teacher  had  placed  two  benches  and  tools  for 
manual  training;  to  the  left,  a  water  stand  with  indi- 
vidual drinking  cups  numbered  and  hung  above,  a  wash 
place,  and  a  dinner  pail  stand. 

There  were  seven  fine  pictures  on  the  walls,  a  large 
case  of  maps,  a  globe,  a  dictionary,  liquid  and  dry  meas- 
ures, a  cupboard  for  seat-work  material  and  tools,  a  book- 
case with  three  hundred  volumes,  an  organ,  a  teacher's 
table,  two  chairs,  and  a  blackened  stove.  The  teach- 
er's table  contained  loan  pencils  (cleaned  daily),  ink, 
pen,  a  tray  of  pins,  a  magazine  for  the  boys  and  one  for 


204  The  Rural  School 

the  girls,  a  clock,  and  always  a  vase  of  flowers,  also  the 
necessary  books  for  recitations. 

There  were  all  grades,  excepting  the  second  grade. 
All  classes  recited  daily  with  few  exceptions.  By  a  wise 
adjustment  of  her  program  the  teacher  was  able  to  give 
twenty  minutes  to  a  number  of  her  classes  and  fifteen  to 
many  others.  During  part  of  the  opening  exercises  music 
was  taught  three  times  a  week  and  rote  song  twice  a 
week.  After  dinner  a  period  of  twenty  minutes  was 
devoted  to  reading  by  the  teacher,  the  telling  of  stories, 
or  the  discussion  of  topics  in  agriculture.  Drawing  was 
done  incidentally  in  all  grades  as  seat  work. 

The  mind  of  the  good  teacher  is  of  the  same  type  as 
that  of  the  general.  It  marshals  the  troops  and  finds  a 
place  and  work  for  each  one.  In  this  school  no  one  was 
idle.  The  little  people  had  seat  work,  in  the  direction 
of  which  the  teacher  was  assisted  by  older  pupils.  They 
in  their  turn  did  some  kind  of  handwork,  basketry, 
sewing,  domestic  science,  manual  training,  or  helped  with 
the  care  and  management  of  the  schoolhouse. 
-  In  the  domestic  science  class  an  outline  of  recipes  was 
followed  which  varied  with  the  months.  For  instance, 
September  and  October  lessons  included  the  camiing 
of  fruits,  making  of  relishes,  preserves  and  fruit  butters. 
For  some  of  the  work  the  girls  furnished  the  material 
and  each  one  supplied  the  necessary  utensils.  After  a 
course  of  twenty  lessons  in  domestic  science  was  finished 
the  girls  took  up  a  regular  course  in  sewing,  consisting 
of  the  different  kinds  of  stitches,  gathering,  different 
kinds  of  seams  and  fancy  stitches.  The  final  test  of  this 
work  was  shown  upon  towels,  aprons,  handkerchiefs, 
and  many  other  useful  articles. 

Lessons  in  manual  training  were  given  on  Tuesday 
afternoons  from  three  to  four  o'clock.    During  this  hour 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    205 

the  boys  were  given  instruction  and  advice  upon  all 
points  that  might  have  come  up  during  the  week  in  regard 
to  their  work.  All  errors  in  handling  tools  were  cor- 
rected. Difficulties  anticipated  were  clearly  explained 
so  that  the  class  could  continue  work  during  their  spare 
moments  in  the  afternoons  without  the  teacher's  atten- 
tion. The  drawing  of  their  pieces  was  done  during  spare 
moments.  During  the  eight-month  term  each  pupil  of 
the  ninth  grade,  besides  completing  his  school  work, 
made  ten  pieces:  a  bread  board,  a  coat  hanger,  a  foot- 
stool, etc.  On  rainy  days  the  spare  time  at  noon  was 
devoted  to  this  work.  The  fourth  and  fifth  grades  com- 
pleted five  small  pieces  in  wood  whittling. 

The  board  paid  the  school  for  doing  the  janitor  work, 
and  this  money  went  into  the  "  pupils'  fund."  With  this 
money  and  that  obtained  from  entertainments,  pictures 
and  other  adornments  for  the  schoolhouse  were  pur- 
chased, as  well  as  the  oil  stove,  oil  and  some  of  the  uten- 
sils for  the  domestic  science  classes.  Sweeping,  dusting, 
building  of  fires,  fetching  of  water,  etc.,  were  closely 
linked  with  the  domestic  economy  program.  Each  one 
did  his  share  and  took  his  turn.  When  playtime  came, 
there  were  games  and  plays,  in  which  both  teacher  and 
pupils  took  a  lively  interest.  Nor  was  ethics  neglected, 
for  each  day  brought  its  lessons  of  politeness,  truthful- 
ness, kindness,  etc.  Twice  a  month  the  mothers  met, 
and  together  with  the  teacher,  studied  some  good  book 
on  Child  Study,  etc.  A  "  Children's  Hour,"  a  "  Mothers' 
Day,"  a  "  Fathers'  Day  "  and  a  "  Parents'  Day  "  linked 
the  school  with  the  home  and  made  every  patron  feel  an 
added  interest  in  the  school  and  a  new  courage  for 
life's  duties. 

Decorating    the   Schoolroom,  for   Festivals.  —  Incidental 
ways  in  which  the  schoolhouse  can  be  made  a  community 


206 


The  Rural  School 


A    SCHOOLROOM    DECORATED    FOR    THANKSGIVING 


center  have  often  been  demonstrated.  Especial  oppor- 
tunities for  identifying  the  school  with  the  social  life  of 
the  community  are  afforded  on  the  occasion  of  some  fes- 
tival. The  following  is  a  description  of  the  way  in  which 
Mrs.  Hoelcel's  pupils  decorated  their  schoolroom  for 
Hallowe'en.  This  plan  of  decoration  would  be  suitable 
for  any  festival  of  the  autumn. 

A  window  was  assigned  to  each  class.  The  smaller 
classes  aided  by  making  chains,  baskets,  lanterns,  etc. 
The  teacher  gave  the  pupils  an  idea  of  what  was  desired. 
Pupils  discussed  their  suggestions  and  ideas  with  the 
teacher  before  putting  them  into  effect. 

The  windows  had  dark  olive  green  shades  and  pretty 
white  curtains.  Window  number  one  was  decorated  in 
evergreen  sprays  intertwined  into  the  edges  of  curtains 
to  their  full  length.     A  triangular  effect   of   evergreen 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    207 


ANOTHER   VIEW    OF   THE   SAME   SCHOOLROOM 


was  carried  out  over  the  lower  sash.  Upon  the  window 
sill  was  a  bed  of  sand  filled  with  shells,  and  amid  the 
shells  stood  a  small  globe  of  goldfish. 

Window  number  two  contained  kaffir  corn  stalks  of 
different  lengths  filled  in  on  both  sides.  Where  the 
stalks  met  a  jack-o'-lantern  "was  placed.  Upon  this 
window  sill  different  kinds  of  ears  of  corn  were  placed, 
also  a  few  squashes. 

Window  number  three  contained  stalks  of  corn  with 
ears  arranged  like  the  kaffir  corn.  This  was  somewhat 
softened  by  bunches  of  asparagus  tops.  Upon  the  sill 
were  placed  different  kinds  of  apples. 

Window  number  four  was  decorated  much  as  number 
one  only  in  buck-brush  and  asparagus  green.  Upon  the 
window  sill  were  vases  containing  flowers,  with  autumn 
leaves  bunched  prettily  about  them. 


[2081 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    209 

Window  number  five  belonged  entirely  to  the  two 
primary  grades.  The  chains  and  baskets  were  hung  in 
festoons  across  the  window  underneath  the  curtains. 
Upon  the  curtains  all  kinds  of  paper  jack-o'-lanterns 
were  pimied.  The  window  sill  was  filled  with  evergreen, 
among  which  gourds  with  carved  faces  peeped  at  the 
audience. 

The  lamp  brackets  were  twined  with  evergreen  and 
bittersweet  vines.  The  pictures  were  decorated  with 
flags  and  bunting.  Pictures  may  be  borrowed  tempo- 
rarity  to  carry  out  the  idea  of  the  day. 

In  Louisiana.  —  Mr.  E.  C.  Bott  of  Natchitoches  parish 
was  sent  by  the  Parish  Board  to  take  charge  of  Cedron 
Consolidated  School.  When  he  came  into  the  district 
in  the  early  summer  of  1911  he  found  no  dwelling  in 
which  to  house  his  family.  However,  the  board  gave 
him  permission  to  move  his  family  into  the  new  school- 
house  while  he  and  his  two  sons  made  over  into  a  dwell- 
ing for  the  teacher  the  two  old  schoolhouses  which  had 
been  moved  to  the  new  school  site.  When  the  school 
opened  in  September  twenty  pupils  came  in  the  dis- 
trict's wagonette,  others  on  horseback,  and  on  foot,  until, 
before  the  year  closed,  all  but  three  of  school  age  in  the 
district  had  presented  themselves  for  enrollment. 

The  houses  having  been  erected  in  the  midst  of  a  forest 
of  young  pines,  there  was  no  playground,  so  teacher  and 
pupils  with  axes  and  spades  cut  down  the  trees  and  dug 
up  the  roots,  thus  clearing  about  three  acres,  enough  for 
playground,  school  garden  and  dooryard  for  the  dwelling. 

Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of  this  remarkable 
school  was  the  school  garden.  The  pupils  cleared  the 
ground,  built  the  fence  and  planted  the  seeds.  In  one 
comer  of  this  garden  a  hotbed  was  made  in  which  tomato 
and  cabbage  plants  were  started  for  the  school  garden 


210 


The  Rural  School 


THE   teacher's   DWELLING 


A    NEIGllHOit  s    I)\\  KLLINQ 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    211 


THE    CEDRON    SCHOOL    GARDEN 


and  for  the  tomato  clubs  of  the  neighborhood.  The 
beans  and  peas  raised  here  were  the  earliest  and  best 
of  any  in  that  vicinity,  as  were  the  tomatoes  and  cab- 
bages. In  every  respect  this  garden  was  the  best  in  all 
that  neighborhood  and  was  an  object  lesson  for  the 
community.  By  means  of  this  garden,  not  only  were 
the  pupils  instructed  in  gardening,  nature  study  and  ele- 
mentary agriculture,  but  also  fifteen  or  twenty  dollars 
were  made  for  the  school,  to  be  expended  for  books  or 
other  school  supplies. 

Among  the  girls  of  the  school,  sixteen  were  organized 
into  a  tomato  club  to  raise  tomatoes  at  home.  They 
were  instructed  in  school  how  to  prepare  the  coil,  how  to 
fertilize  and  set  out  the  plants.  As  soon  as  the  season 
had  opened,  the  plants  in  the  school  hotbed  were  large 
enough  to  set  out  From  this  bed,  plants  were  furnished 
not  only  to  pupils  of  the  school  but  to  all  persons  in  the 
neighborhood  who  desired  them. 


212 


The  Rural  School 


TEACHER  S    HOGS 


The  teacher  brought  with  him  two  pure  bred  O.  I.  C. 
hogs.  From  this  start  some  eight  or  ten  pure  bred  hogs 
have  been  distributed  throughout  the  vicinity.  A  "  Pig 
Club "  of  three  pupils  was  organized.  The  original 
"  Razor  Back  "  is  doomed  in  that  vicinity. 

Four  boys  decided  to  put  their  energy  into  raising  corn. 
As  a  result  of  this  club  work,  an  intense  interest  in  agri- 
culture, gardening  and  general  community  improve- 
ment was  aroused.  This  interest  culmmated  in  many 
competitions  at  the  parish  fair. 

Mr.  Bott  organized  a  literary  society  which  was  well 
attended,  and  he  aroused  much  interest  in  civic  affairs. 
He  organized  a  Sunday  school,  a  mutual  telephone  com- 
pany and  a  canning  company,  which  canned  the  tomatoes, 
corn,  etc.,  raised  in  the  school  garden  and  by  club  mem- 
bers and  others  of  the  comnmnity. 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    213 


THE    ORIGINAL        RAZOR    HACK        IS    DOOMED 


It  is  hard  to  estimate  the  worth  and  influence  of  this 
school  and  its  teacher  upon  the  neighborhood;  for  every 
one  in  the  whole  vicinity  has  been  awakened,  been  aroused 
to  new  effort.  They  are  seeing  visions,  dreaming  dreams. 
Before  the  coming  of  the  teacher  and  the  consolidated 
school  there  was  no  life,  no  ambition  to  do  more  than 
they  had  been  doing  for  years.  They  were  making  a 
bare  living  and  did  not  expect  to  do  more.  Now  they 
believe  they  can  raise  anything  that  grows  out  of  doors. 
The  prospects  are  that  there  will  be  forty  acres  of 
tomatoes  planted  next  year,  and  that  the  capacity  of 
the  canning  plant  will  have  to  be  more  than  doubled. 

The  idea  that  they  can  raise  better  hogs  is  spreading 
and  the  young  men  for  miles  around  are  seeking  for  a 
start  of  pure  bred  pigs.  The  teacher  brought  with  him 
a  pure  bred  Jersey  cow.  There  is  grass  and  pasture 
going  to  waste  and  the  introduction  of  this  cow  may 


214  The  Rural  School 

serve  as  an  object  lesson  which  will  lead  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  creamery. 

The  people  of  this  community  know  now  that  they  can 
raise  other  products  besides  cotton.  They  will  be  the 
first  to  eradicate  the  benumbing  influence  of  the  hook- 
worm and  will  come  to  the  front  educationally,  socially 
and  economically. 

All  this  Mr.  Bott  accomplished  because  of  his  energy 
and  spirit,  and  because  he  knew  what  was  needed  to 
be  done  in  that  vicinity.  When  he  entered  the  community 
there  were  dissensions  and  factions  among  neighbors, 
but  he  succeeded  in  interesting  all  for  the  common  good 
of  the  neighborhood  and  for  the  uplmilding  of  a  common 
interest.  There  are  many  other  neighborhoods  ready  to 
be  led  to  better  things  economically,  socially  and  morally, 
when  the  teacher  can  be  found  who  can  lead  them. 

Very  little  of  what  has  been  accomplished  in  the  Cedron 
Consolidated  School  could  have  been  done  had  not  the 
teacher  lived  on  the  school  grounds.  To  make  the  school 
a  community  center  and  inspiration  for  better  country 
life,  the  teacher  must  not  be  a  transient,  he  must  be  not 
merely  a  nominal  resident,  but  an  actual  member  of  the 
community. 

In  Iowa.  —  That  a  teacher  can  create  an  interest  in 
remodeling  and  decorating  the  school  grounds  even 
where.no  interest  has  been  manifested  before,  is  forcibly 
showTi  by  what  was  accomplished  by  Mrs.  Huftalen,  now 
county  superintendent  of  Page  County,  Iowa.  She  says: 
"  In  1903  I  began  in  a  nearly  new  schoolhouse  at  Oneida 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  Iowa.  The  school  ground  was 
literally  covered  with  debris  of  various  kinds,  including 
heaps  of  earth  and  ashes,  sticks  and  stones  galore,  weeds, 
some  grass  and  a  hub-deep  mud  hole  in  front  of  the  porch. 
On  the  inside  there  was  a  spirit  of  grumblmg,  misde- 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    215 

meaner,  and  rebellion.  For  ornament  there  were  three 
meaningless  newspaper  prints  posted  on  the  walls.  Other- 
wi-se  the  room  was  light  and  cheery  and  well  heated  with 
a  furnace,  which  gave  us  warm  floors. 

"  Although  the  pupils  were  loud,  restless  and  rude,  in  a 
short  time  they  were  led  to  turn  this  worse  than  wasted 
energy  of  youth  to  industrious  pursuits  and  intelligent 
cooperation.  During  the  five  years  of  my  stay  in  this 
school,  the  ash  heaps  were  removed  to  the  hillside  gutter, 
the  dirt  mounds  were  carted  to  fill  hollows  and  to  make  a 
raised  flower  bed  which  was  bordered  by  the  waste  stones, 
eighty-four  trees  were  planted,  an  octagonal  arbor  twelve 
feet  in  diameter  was  constructed  of  discarded  telephone 
poles  and  chicken  wire  and  an  arch  bearing  the  name  of 
the  school,  "  Arbor  Vitae  Summit,"  was  erected  in  front. 
The  grass  was  kept  mowed  during  the  summer.  No 
mark  or  scratches  of  any  kind  were  to  be  found  in  either 
of  the  outhouses,  which  were  scrubbed  often. 

"  With  money  raised  by  school  socials  a  large  bell  was 
purchased  and  placed  in  a  belfry.  Besides  this,  we  bought 
a  flag,  bat  and  ball,  books,  pictures,  etc." 

Mrs.  Huftalen  beheves  in  play  as  well  as  work  for  chil- 
dren, for  while  teaching  in  another  school  at  Norwich  she 
speaks  of  securing  for  this  place,  a  sandpile,  swings,  see- 
saws, volley  ball,  tennis  net,  croquet,  and  an  iron  Maypole. 

Besides  these,  there  were  placed  on  this  school  ground 
a  walled  terrace  48  by  97  feet  for  a  playground,  flower  beds 
bordered  with  cement,  an  arch  with  seats,  trees  and  two 
outbuildings,  the  best  in  the  county. 

All  this  was  accomplished  through  efforts  of  a  teacher, 
whose  capital  was  energy,  enthusiasm,  and  an  intense 
devotion  to  the  cause  of  education. 

In  Washington;  The  Noon  Lunch.  —  Professor  Virgil  E. 
Dickson  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Cheney  has  started 


216  The  Rural  School 

a  movement  which  is  worthy  of  consideration  and  imita- 
tion. Its  application  is  possible  in  almost  any  school 
where  children  bring  a  cold  lunch.  The  plan  is  something 
as  follows.  Some  provision  is  made  for  a  stove  and  a  few 
dishes  and  cooking  utensils.  The  stove  may  be  an  oil 
burner,  rented  or  borrowed,  and  the  dishes  may  be  loaned 
by  the  patrons  whose  children  bring  their  dinners. 

The  noon  lunch  may  be  managed  in  some  such  manner 
as  Professor  Dickson  described  to  the  author.  He  said: 
Sometime  before  noon,  two  girls  went  into  a  little 
room  and  started  the  noon  dish,  which  for  this  day  was 
vegetable  soup.  Just  before  close  of  school  for  noon,  these 
same  two  girls,  without  any  directions  from  the  teacher, 
again  went  and  finished  preparing  this  hot  dish  for  the 
noon  meal.  When  school  was  dismissed,  each  child  got 
his  lunch  basket,  found  his  place  to  eat,  took  from  his 
basket  a  paper  napkin  and  spread  it  upon  his  desk.  On 
this  he  placed  his  Imich,  using  his  napkin  as  a  tablecloth. 
He  also  provided  himself  with  a  small  doily  on  which  to 
set  a  dish  of  hot  soup.  He  now  set  aside  his  basket. 
The  two  girls  served  each  one  with  a  dish  of  the  hot  soup, 
and  all  sat  and  ate  like  a  large  family. 

This  gave  an  opportunity  for  social  conversation, 
some  lessons  in  table  manners  and  suggestions  as  to  what 
were  good  things  for  a  cold  dinner.  No  one  was  expected 
to  leave  until  all  had  finished;  so  there  was  none  of  the 
usual  unseemly  haste  of  a  school  lunch.  When  the  meal 
was  finished,  the  girls  removed  the  dishes,  washed  them 
and  put  them  away. 

Do  pupils  like  this  way?  So  much  that  they  would  not 
go  back  to  the  old  plan  after  it  has  been  tried.  Do  they 
not  get  tired  of  soup  every  day?  They  doubtless  would 
but  for  the  fact  that  soup  is  not  served  every  day.  One 
day  it  will  be  a  cup  of  hot  cocoa,  a  dish  of  rice  or  hominy 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    217 

or  a  dish  of  hot  bean  soup.  How  about  the  cost?  It  is 
very  httle,  about  one  cent  a  dish.  Each  teacher  will  have 
to  meet  the  expense  in  his  own  way.  Sometimes  the 
board  will  furnish  the  money  needed,  other  times  each 
pupil  will  contribute  five  cents  a  week,  and  again,  the 
teacher  will  give  an  entertainment  and  raise  the  amount 
of  money  needed." 

The  social  and  refuiing  influence  of  a  noon  lunch  con- 
ducted properly,  to  say  nothing  of  its  hygienic  value, 
commends  it  to  the  attention  of  every  thoughtful  teacher. 
Through  it  the  teacher  may  reach  every  home  in  the  dis- 
trict with  a  refining  and  uplifting  influence. 

In  Oregon;  A  Way  to  Unite  School  and  Home.  —  There 
has  been  much  admonition  on  the  part  of  educators 
urging  the  union  of  the  interests  of  school  and  home; 
but  no  one  has  succeeded  so  well  in  solving  this 
problem  as  L.  R.  Alderman,  formerly  State  Super- 
intendent of  Oregon.  In  his  little  pamphlet,  "  School 
Industrial  Credit  for  Home  Industrial  Work,"  he  says: 
"The  idea  of  giving  school  credit  for  home  work  first 
occurred  to  me  nine  years  ago,  when  I  was  a  school  princi- 
pal. I  had  noticed  that  one  of  my  rosiest-cheeked,  most 
vigorous  appearing  girls  spent  much  time  on  the  streets 
after  school.  One  day  Mary's  mother  was  pointed  out  to 
me.  She  was  a  pale,  nervous  little  woman  with  several 
children.  Knowing  that  the  family  was  not  well-to-do  I 
felt  myself  burning  with  indignation  at  tlie  circumstances 
that  were  drawing  Mary  away  from  interest  in  her  home. 
I  thought,  '  What  is  the  use  of  my  teaching  that  girl  al- 
gebra and  general  history,  when  what  she  most  needs  to 
be  taught  is  that  her  mother  is  her  best  friend  and  needs 
her  help?  ' 

"  At  the  algebra  recitation  the  next  day  I  announced 
that  the  lesson  for  the  following  day  would  consist  of  ten 


218  The  Rural  School 

problems  as  usual,  but  that  five  would  be  in  the  book,  and 
five  out  of  the  book.  The  five  out  of  the  book  would  con- 
sist for  the  girls  in  helping  cook  supper,  helping  to  do  up 
the  kitchen  work  after  supper,  preparing  breakfast,  help- 
ing with  the  dishes  and  kitchen  work  after  breakfast  and 
putting  a  bedroom  in  order.  When  I  asked  for  '  hands 
up  '  on  all  the  problems  the  following  day,  I  noticed  that 
Mary  kept  her  hand  raised  after  the  others  were  down. 
'  What  is  it?  '  I  asked.  '  I  worked  five  in  advance,' 
she  replied  with  sparkling  eyes.  '  I  worked  five  ahead  in 
the  book,  besides  the  ten  that  you  gave  us.'  From  that 
time  Mary's  interest  in  all  school  work  was  doubled.  She 
was  right  up  in  the  first  rank." 

Ex-Superintendent  Alderman's  account  of  what  is  be- 
ing done  by  an  Oregon  teacher  in  a  rural  school  reads  as 
follows:  "A.  I.  O'Reilly,  a  young  man  who  is  just  com- 
pleting his  third  year  at  the  Spring  Valley  school,  a  coun- 
try district  in  Polk  County,  determined  last  September 
(1911)  to  test  the  plan  of  giving  credit  to  his  pupils  for  the 
work  they  did  at  home.  He  went  to  his  directors,  and  se- 
cured their  promise  to  give  money  from  the  general  school 
fund  to  be  awarded  to  the  pupils  earning  the  most  credit 
in  a  home-work  contest.  He  then  proceeded  to  work  out 
his  plans,  the  contest  idea  being  original  with  him." 

The  duties  for  which  home  credit  is  offered  and  the 
amount  of  credit  for  each  are  as  follows: 

"  Building  fire  in  the  morning,  5  minutes;  milking  a  cow, 
5  minutes;  cleaning  out  the  barn,  10  minutes;  splitting 
and  carrying  in  wood  (12  hours'  supply),  10  minutes; 
turning  cream  separator,  10  minutes;  cleaning  horse, 
each  horse,  10  minutes;  gathering  eggs,  10  minutes;  feed- 
ing chickens,  5  minutes;  feeding  pigs,  5  minutes;  feeding 
horse,  5  minutes;  feeding  cows,  5  minutes;  churning,  10 
minutes;    making  butter,  10  minutes;    blacking  stove,  5 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher    219 

minutes;  making  and  baking  bread,  1  hour;  making 
biscuits,  10  minutes;  preparing  the  breakfast  for  family, 
30  minutes;  preparing  supper  for  family,  30  minutes; 
washing  and  wiping  dishes,  one  meal,  15  minutes;  sweep- 
ing floor,  5  minutes;  dusting  furniture,  cleaning  rugs,  etc., 
one  room,  5  minutes;  scrubbing  floor,  20  minutes;  ma- 
king beds,  each  bed,  5  minutes;  washing,  ironing  and 
starching  own  clothes  that  are  worn  at  school,  each  week, 
2  hours;  bathing,  each  bath,  30  minutes;  arriving  at 
school  with  clean  hands,  face,  teeth  and  nails,  and  with 
hair  combed,  10  minutes;  practicing  music  lesson  (for 
thirty  minutes),  10  minutes;  retiring  on  or  before  9 
o'clock,  5  minutes;  bathing  and  dressing  baby,  10  min- 
utes; sleeping  with  window  boards  in  l^edroom,  each  night, 
5  minutes;  other  work  not  listed,  reasonable  credit." 

The  conditions  and  rules  of  the  home  credit  contest 
are  given  here: 

1.  No  pupil  is  obliged  to  enter  the  contest. 

2.  Any  pupil  entering  is  free  to  retire  from  contest  at 
any  time,  but  if  any  one  does  so  without  good  cause  all 
credits  he  or  she  may  have  earned  will  be  forfeited. 

3.  Parent  or  guardian  must  send  an  itemized  list  (with 
signature  affixed)  to  the  teacher  each  morning.  This  list 
must  contain  record  of  work  each  child  has  done  daily. 

4.  Each  day  teacher  will  issue  a  credit  voucher  to  the 
pupil.  This  voucher  will  state  the  total  number  of 
minutes  due  the  pupil  each  day  for  home  work. 

5.  At  the  close  of  the  contest  pupils  will  return  vouchers 
to  teacher,  the  six  pupils  who  have  earned  the  greatest 
amount  of  time,  per  the  vouchers,  receiving  awards. 

6.  Contest  closes  when  term  of  school  closes. 

7.  Once  each  month  the  names  of  the  six  pupils  who 
are  in  the  lead  will  be  published  in  the  county  papers. 

8.  Ten  per  cent  credit  will  be  added  to  final  examina- 


220  The  Rural  School 

tion  results  of  all  pupils  (except  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade) 
who  enter  and  continue  in  the  contest. 

9.  When  pupil  has  credits  to  the  amount  of  one  day 
earned,  by  surrender  of  the  credits  and  proper  apphcation 
to  teacher  he  may  be  granted  a  holiday,  provided  not 
more  than  one  holiday  be  granted  to  a  pupil  each  month. 

10.  Forfeitures:  dropping  out  of  contest  without 
cause,  all  credits  due;  unexcused  absence,  all  credits  due; 
unexcused  tardiness,  25  per  cent  off  all  credits  due;  less 
than  90  per  cent  in  deportment,  10  per  cent  off  all  credits. 

11.  Award?:  three  having  highest  credits,  $3  each; 
three  having  second  highest  credits,  $2  each.  Awards 
to  be  placed  in  a  savings  bank  to  the  credit  of  the  pupil 
winning  them.  Funds  for  awards  furnished  by  the  school 
district  board  out  of  general  fund. 

All  of  Mr.  O'Reilly's  pupils,  thirty-one  in  number, 
entered  the  contest  with  the  vim  and  eagerness  for  which 
children  are  noted,  and  have  faithfully  kept  up  their  home 
work  throughout  the  year.  The  parents  have  cooperated 
by  sending  in  the  lists  of  work  done  by  the  children  at 
home.  Every  morning  Mr.  O'Reilly  receives  these  notes, 
which  are  usually  written  by  the  children  and  signed  by 
the  parents.    Here  are  a  few  samples  of  parents'  reports: 

Flora  Mortensen, 

April  17,  1912.  MiN. 

Fed  the  chickens 5 

Gathered  the  eggs 15 

Set  the  table 5 

Wiped  the  dishes 5 

Tended  flowers 20 

Swept  one  floor 5 

Was  in  bed  before  9 5 

Washed  teeth 10 

Prepared  one  lunch 5 

Total 75 


The  Opportunity  of  a  Rural  Teacher  221 

Henry  Davidson, 
April  17,  1912.  Mm. 

Milked  cows 20 

Curried  horses 10 

Hunted  eggs 10 

Fed  chickens 10 

Fed  horses 10 

Fed  pigs 10 

Fed  cows 10 

Cut  wood 10 

To  bed  before  9 5 

Total 95 

So  far  as  is  known  to  the  author,  no  better  plan  has  been 
devised  for  connecting  the  school  and  home  than  that  set 
forth  by  Superintendent  Alderman.  It  commends  itself 
in  that  pupils  will  be  given  an  interest  in  home  duties  and 
be  brought  to  realize  that  an  education  is  not  for  the  pur- 
pose of  freeing  oneself  from  work.  It  will  give  the  parents 
a  more  vital  interest  in  the  school,  as  they  see  it  aiding 
with  the  every-day  duties  of  the  home.  This  plan  is 
worthy  the  thoughtful  consideration  and  a  careful  judi- 
cious trial  on  the  part  of  every  experienced  teacher. 

But  some  one  says,  for  much  of  this  I  am  not  paid,  nor 
is  it  in  my  contract.  While  this  is  true,  yet,  if  the  teacher 
is  not  working  just  for  the  money  and  wants  to  know  how 
best  he  can  invest  his  life  while  teaching  a  district  school, 
here  is  his  opportunity. 

REFERENCES 

Butterfield,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress  (chapter  8). 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  $1.25. 

Field,  The  Corn  Lady.    A.  Flanagan  &  Co.,  50c. 

Wilson,  The  Church  in  the  Open  Country.  Missionary 
Movement  of  United  States  and  Canada.     New  York. 

Wray,  Jean  MitchelVs  School.  Public  School  Publish- 
ing Company,  Bloomington,  111.,  $1.00. 


Chapter    XIX 

CONSOLIDATION 
CHANGED   CONDITIONS 

Doubtless  many  a  thinking  teacher  has  asked  himself, 
if  no  one  else,  "  Why  this  need  of  consolidation?  Why 
were  not  the  districts  made  large  in  the  first  place  and 
left  so?  "  In  reply  to  these  questions  it  may  be  said 
that  conditions  have  changed.  In  the  early  days  the 
cities  had  not  improved  their  schools  to  the  present 
state  of  efficiency,  and  the  one-room  school  in  the  country 
was  more  nearly  on  a  par  with  the  village  school  near  by. 
But  the  concentration  of  people  and  wealth  into  the 
cities  and  towns  and  the  successful  operation  of  the 
graded  school  system  has  left  the  one-room  rural  school 
of  our  forefathers  far  behind.  The  contrast  between  the 
two  is  great,  and  it  is  greatly  to  the  humiliation  of  the 
rural  school. 

Not  that  a  otie-room  school  is  necessaril}^  a  poor  school, 
nor  that  a  country  school  is  by  reason  of  that  one  fact  a 
poor  school;  but  a  small  school  is,  and  always  has  been  a 
poor  school.  In  early  days  families  were  large  and  pro- 
portionately more  people  lived  in  the  country  than  now. 
Consequently  the  schools  were  larger.  In  almost  any 
county  may  be  found  a  schoolhouse  that  was  built  to 
accommodate  fifty  children  which  now  has  an  attendance 
of  less  than  ten.  Some  one  may  ask  where  the  children 
are?    The  only  answer  is  that  they  are  gone.    To  be  sure, 

222 


Consolidation  223 

occasionally  there  is  a  schoolhouse  that  is  full,  but  the 
crowded  schoolrooms  are  in  the  cities  and  villages.  The 
children  are  not  in  the  country  as  they  used  to  be. 

ORIGIN   OF  THE   DISTRICT  UNIT 

Although  the  above  is  true,  it  is  possible  that  the  in- 
dependent district  was  a  mistake  in  the  first  place.  Origi- 
nally, in  New  England,  the  township  was  the  school  and 
governmental  unit.  By  an  ordinance  in  1647,  Massa- 
chusetts decreed  that  "  Every  township  after  the  Lord 
has  increased  them  to  fifty  housekeepers,  shall  then  forth- 
with appoint  one  within  their  own  town  to  teach  all  such 
children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write  and  read."  At 
that  time  the  church  parish  and  the  governmental  unit 
were  one  and  their  interests  were  the  same.  Of  course, 
education  was  largely  under  the  control  of  the  church, 
and  so  long  as  the  church  unit  and  the  governmental  unit 
were  the  same  and  harmonious,  it  was  all  right;  but  when 
other  denominations  began  to  come  into  a  toAvm  and  to 
hold  independent  church  services,  they  wanted  to  control 
the  schooling  of  their  children.  This  gradually  led  to 
giving  the  control  of  schools  into  the  hands  of  committee- 
men for  independent  districts. 

In  1789  Massachusetts  incorporated  the  district  system 
into  its  revised  code.  Horace  Mann  said  regarding 
"  school  districts  "  that  it  was  the  most  disastrous  fea- 
ture in  the  whole  history  of  educational  legislation  in 
Massachusetts.  From  this  it  seems  that  this  great  edu- 
cator was  never  pleased  with  the  independent  district 
unit.  It  must  be  understood  that  at  times  and  places 
these  districts  have  been  entirely  independent,  having 
power  to  hold  school  or  not  as  they  pleased  and  to  hire 
such  teachers  as  suited  their  caprice.    In  some  cases  they 


224  The  Rural  School 

would  have  one  term  of  school  in  three  or  four  years. 
But  now,  in  Kansas,  for  example,  if  the  schocl  district 
neglect  or  refuse  to  have  a  term  of  school  or  to  provide 
schooling  for  the  children  of  the  district,  it  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  county  superintendent  to  step  in  and  provide 
a  school  for  these  children  and  charge  the  expense  to 
the  district.  In  these  old-time  districts,  the  school  com- 
mittee would  examine  the  teacher,  and  make  suggestions 
as  to  methods  of  conducting  the  school  and  governing  the 
pupils;  in  fact,  they  were  school  board  and  county  super- 
intendent combined. 

EVILS   OF  THE  DISTRICT  SYSTEM 

The  above  is  the  independent  district  carried  to  its 
fullest  extent;  and  this  idea  of  local  self-government  has 
so  captivated  the  American  people  that  the  district  system 
of  school  control  has  engrafted  itself  upon  a  large  number 
of  the  states  of  the  Union,  and  school  people  have  been 
fighting  its  evils  ever  since  the  days  of  Horace  Mann. 

Taxation.  —  These  evil  results  are  various.  First,  the 
small  unit  is  not  equitable  when  it  comes  to  raising  money 
by  taxation.  It  is  a  principle  of  our  free  school  S3^stem 
that  the  property  shall  pay  the  expenses  of  running  the 
schools;  but  it  is  said  that  one  third  of  the  property  of 
Massachusetts  is  within  a  radius  of  ten  miles  around  Bos- 
ton. It  is  hardly  possible  that  one  third  of  the  schools 
of  Massachusetts  are  within  this  radius.  In  many  ways 
it  can  be  shown  that  the  large  unit  is  more  just  when  it 
comes  to  raising  money  for  schools  by  taxation. 

Need  of  Supervision.  -  -  Then  again,  it  has  been  im- 
possible for  all  the  schools  to  get  teachers  who  were  pro- 
ficient in  school  management  and  methods  in  teaching; 
in  other  words,  teachers  who  do  not  need  supervision. 


Consolidation  225 

In  other  ways  also  it  has  been  found  that  an  expert  in 
education  can  be  of  great  service  to  the  individual  school, 
and  this  has  led  to  school  supervision.  Supervision  in 
turn  calls  for  a  larger  unit,  the  city,  the  county,  and  the 
state;  it  is  too  expensive  for  the  small  unit.  While  neither 
taxation  nor  supervision  has  been  settled  satisfactorily 
to  the  school  interests  of  the  country,  yet  the  tendency 
is  all  toward  the  larger  unit,  toward  consolidation. 

Lack  of  Social  Contact.  —  The  social  element  is  such  a 
factor  in  all  school  life  that  segregation  becomes  wither- 
ing in  its  influence,  while  aggregation  and  consolidation 
are  stimulating  and  helpful.  In  many  ways  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  small  school  is  a  poor  school,  but  es- 
pecially in  its  lack  of  social  opportunities.  Persons  learn 
from  each  other.  The  contact  of  mind  with  mind  is  one 
of  the  best  ways  of  learning.  Travel,  coming  into  con- 
tact with  many  people  in  a  social  or  business  way,  gives 
a  breadth  of  character,  culture  and  understanding  that  is 
not  obtained  from  books  or  study.  The  society  events 
and  social  intercourse  of  a  large  school  are  in  themselves 
a  great  educational  factor  and  a  source  of  much  profit 
to  the  young  man  or  woman  that  comes  in  from  a  rural 
community. 

THE  LARGER  UNIT 

Progress  of  Movement.  —  Although  consolidation  of 
school  districts  has  been  advocated  for  a  good  many  years 
and  Horace  Mann  succeeded  in  consolidating  the  dis- 
tricts of  a  number  of  townships  in  Massachusetts,  yet 
it  was  not  until  the  Committee  of  Twelve  made  its  report 
to  the  National  Educational  Association  (1896)  that  it 
was  brought  prominently  before  the  people  of  the  country. 
Since  then  many  states  have  authorized  consolidation  by 
law,  and  quite  a  little  has  been  accomplished  in  this  time. 


226  The  Rural  School 

The  consolidation  of  school  districts  is  but  another 
form  of  "  centralizing  tendencies,"  as  Mr.  Boone  calls 
them  in  his  "  History  of  Education  "  which  we  have 
mentioned  elsewhere.  It  is  getting  back  to  a  larger  unit 
for  the  school  proper.  It  is  not  claimed  that  this  should 
be  the  unit  for  su})ervision  and  taxation;  perhaps  the 
state  and  county  for  supervision,  and  the  township, 
county  and  state  for  taxation,  are  about  the  ideals  of 
educators  of  the  present  time. 

Social  Value.  —  As  has  been  said  before,  the  small 
school  is,  as  a  rule,  a  poor  school.  The  social  element  is 
lacking,  and  the  larger  boys  and  girls  will  not  attend. 
There  is  a  lack  of  emulation,  and  the  pupils  and  classes 
do  not  do  their  best  work.  In  a  small  school  there  is  no 
class  spirit,  there  is  no  school  spirit.  Consolidation 
brings  a  larger  number  of  puj^ils  together  and  makes  a 
good  school  possible. 

Economy.  —  Often  it  is  a  matter  of  economy  to  con- 
solidate a  number  of  districts.  It  frequently  happens 
that  a  number  of  schools  in  a  locality  are  all  small,  eight 
to  twelve  pupils  each.  Sometimes  four  or  five  of  these 
schools  may  be  combined  and  taught  by  half  the  former 
number  of  teachers.  Much,  also,  can  be  saved  in  the 
expense  of  fuel,  apparatus,  etc. 

The  matter  of  economy  would  commend  consolidation 
to  the  rural  communities,  and  especially  to  those  that  are 
sparsely  settled,  were  it  not  for  the  difficulty  of  getting 
pupils  to  and  from  the  schoolhouse,  which,  from  the  nature 
of  things,  must  be  located  at  some  distance  from  many 
of  the  homes.  The  solution  proposed  for  this  problem 
is  what  is  known  as  Transportation.  A  number  of  routes 
are  laid  out  covering  the  district,  wagons  are  bought  by 
the  district,  and  drivers  are  hired  to  gather  up  the  chil- 
dren in  the  morning  and  bring  them  to  the  schoolhouse. 


Consolidation  227 

At  night  these  same  routes  are  retraced  and  each  child 
is  left  at  his  o^vn  home. 

Objections  and  Answers.  —  There  seem  to  be  serious 
objections  offered  by  those  who  should  be  most  directly 
interested  and  who  would  be  most  benefited  if  the  plan 
of  consolidation  should  prove  a  success.  We  quote  the 
following  among  the  prominent  objections  offered: 

1.  "  Depreciation  of  property;  decreased  valuation  of 
farms  in  districts  where  schools  have  been  closed." 

This  seems  to  be  imaginary,  as  experience  has  proved 
the  contrary  to  be  true.  Land  values  have  increased 
more  in  the  consolidated  district  than  in  a  neighboring 
district  of  the  old  type. 

2.  "  Dislike  to  send  children  to  school  far  from  home, 
away  from  the  oversight  of  parents." 

This  also  is  a  myth,  for  under  consolidation  children  are 
better  cared  for  than  under  the  old  system,  and  now  that 
there  are  the  telephones,  in  cases  of  sickness  the  child 
can  be  more  readily  relieved  and  the  parent  can  be  more 
quickly  notified  than  if  they  were  under  the  conditions 
of  the  old-fashioned  district  school.  (See  reports  of 
Superintendent  H.  S.  Gilhams,  page  229,  and  of  Dean  of 
Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 
page  230.) 

3.  "  Danger  to  health  and  morals:  children  obliged 
to  travel  too  far  in  cold  stormy  weather;  obliged  to  walk 
a  portion  of  the  way  to  meet  the  team,  and  then  to  ride 
to  school  in  damp  clothing  and  with  wet  feet." 

As  to  health  and  morals,  the  consolidated  school  has 
every  advantage  over  the  old  custom.  In  bad  weather 
it  is  certainly  better  to  ride  than  to  trudge  through  mud 
or  cold  a  mile  and  a  half  or  more.  The  moral  conditions 
under  a  poor  driver  will  never  be  worse,  and  under  a  good 
driver  will  be  infinitely  better,  than  where  a  mixed  group 


228  The  Rural  School 

of  children  loiter  along  the  public  road  or  roam  unpro- 
tected through  the  open  fields.  No  man  who  would  be 
trusted  with  the  driving  of  one  of  these  wagons  would 
permit  the  abuse  and  vile  language  before  little  girls  that 
now  takes  place  on  the  road  to  and  from  school.  If  a 
child  had  to  walk  a  short  distance  to  meet  the  wagon,  this 
would  be  no  worse  than  to  walk  all  the  way;  and  the 
instances  where  this  would  occur  would  be  rare,  for  the 
wagon  will  generally  come  to  the  door.  (See  report  of 
Superintendent  Gilhams,  page  229.) 

4.  "  Difficulty  of  securing  proper  conveyances  on 
reasonable  terms,  or  if  the  parent  is  allowed  compensa- 
tion, of  agreeing  on  terms  satisfactory  to  both  parties, 
parents  and  officials." 

While  in  some  localities  it  may  be  difficult  to  secure 
suitable  drivers  and  make  satisfactory  terms  for  trans- 
portation of  pupils,  yet  where  districts  have  consolidated 
they  have  been  able  to  adjust  this  matter  and  convey 
the  children  to  schoial  just  as  the  Government  has  been 
able  to  find  men  and  teams  to  deliver  the  mail  daily  at 
the  farmer's  door,  and  just  as  creamery  companies  have 
found  persons  willing  to  make  a  daily  route  to  gather 
cream.  (See  report  of  Dean  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  University  of  Illinois,  page  230.) 

5.  "  Natural  proneness  of  some  people  to  object  to 
any  innovation,  whatever  the  measure  or  however  well 
it  is  received  elsewhere." 

To  us  this  seems  to  be  the  greatest  hindrance  to  the 
consolidation  of  many  districts.  We  "  rather  bear  ills 
we  have  than  fly  to  those  that  we  know  not  of."  Where 
consolidation  has  been  tried,  it  has  been  almost  univer- 
sally satisfactory,  but  people  are  slow  to  take  up  new 
ideas  and  make  radical  changes.  If  it  is  judiciously 
advocated,  the  coming  generation  will  accept  it. 


Consolidation  229 

REPORTS  IN  REGARD  TO   CONSOLIDATION  IN  SEVERAL 

STATES 

Hon.  E.  T.  Fairchild,  State  Superintendent  of  Kansas, 
has  set  forth  the  advantages  of  consoUdation  so  well  that 
by  permission  we  are  quoting  from  his  Bulletin  on  Con- 
solidation as  follows: 

In  Indiana  and  Ohio.  —  The  report  of  Superintendent 
H.  S.  Gilhams  for  1903-04  gives  the  following  statement 
of  facts  as  to  consolidation  in  La  Grange  County,  In- 
diana: 

"1.  The  drivers  carry  watches  and  consult  them  while 
on  the  route. 

"  2.  Each  driver  keeps  the  time  of  the  consolidated 
school,  generally  standard. 

"  3.  The  rate  of  speed  while  on  the  route  averages  five 
miles  per  hour  for  the  year. 

"4.  The  time  of  arrival  varies  from  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes  prior  to  the  opening  of  the  schools. 

"  5.  The  more  remote  pupils  ride  about  five  miles,  and 
sixty  per  cent  ride  three  miles  or  less. 

"  6.  Children  are  kept  comfortable  by  stoves,  patent 
heaters,  blankets  and  soapstones. 

"  7.  The  greatest  advantage  to  the  service  is  township 
ownership  of  hacks  and  the  improvement  of  roads. 

"  8.  The  drivers  exercise  due  responsibility  in  promptly 
and  safely  conveying  the  children  to  school  and  return- 
ing them  to  their  homes;  they  also,  by  contract,  prohibit 
questionable  language,  undue  familiarity  and  boisterous 
conduct  in  or  about  the  hacks. 

"  9.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  patrons  have  reported 
the  consolidated  school  as  their  preference  in  comparison 
with  the  '  old  way.'  " 

The  Dean  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the 


230  The  Rural  School 

University  of  Illinois  caused  a  special  investigation  to  be 
made  of  the  consolidated  schools  in  Indiana  and  Ohio, 
and  below  are  some  extracts  from  the  report: 

"  Over  sixty  per  cent  of  the  districts  report  the  cost 
as  less  and  the  results  as  better  after  consolidation.  About 
fifteen  per  cent  report  the  cost  as  being  the  same,  and  ten 
per  cent  that  the  system  costs  more,  but  the  results  are 
better.  ..." 

"  There  are  four  things  that  are  going  to  benefit  this 
country:  These  are  the  telegraph,  the  daily  mail,  the 
electric  car  and  the  centralized  schools  in  the  country, 
and  when  you  have  gotten  these  you  have  many  of  the 
advantages  of  the  city  in  the  country,  and  all  the  advan- 
tages of  the  country  besides.  I  do  not  think  I  can  ad- 
vocate too  strongly  the  centralized  schools.  .  .  ." 

"  The  advantages  of  centralization  are  many.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  attendance  has  been  more  regular; 
very  seldom  are  the  scholars  absent.  Much  more  interest 
is  being  taken  and  greater  progress  made.  They  have 
larger  libraries,  better  teachers,  more  competition  in  their 
work,  and,  in  the  end,  are  far  more  accomplished  than 
would  have  been  possible  had  they  attended  the  district 
school.  I  might  add  further  that  it  has  been  proven  that 
the  children  have  been  warmer  and  more  comfortable." 

"...  If  a  child  is  taken  sick  at  the  school,  he  is  sent 
home  at  public  expense.  This  has  occurred,  I  was  told, 
four  times  in  the  past  three  years.  As  one  of  the  parents 
said,  '  It  is  a  great  comfort  to  know  that  if  occasion  de- 
mands it  my  child  will  be  brought  home.'  " 

''  As  to  the  character  of  the  work  done  in  this  well- 
graded  six-room  high  school  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  scattering  schools,  there  is  no  room  for  argument, 
there  is  absolutely  no  comparison  possible." 

"  Of  the  fifty-six  persons  interviewed  in  Gustava  and 


Consolidation  231 

Green  townships,  forty-five  were  in  favor  of  the  system, 
four  were  indifferent,  and  seven  opposed,  and  of  the  seven 
who  were  against  the  system,  six  were  without  children 
in  attendance  at  school.  The  advantages  of  an  up-to-date 
and  thoroughly  conducted  high  school  were  in  this  rural 
school  shared  alike  by  all  the  children  of  the  township. 
Six  months  imder  the  central  system  is  as  good  as  nine 
months  under  the  old  district  plan.  ..." 

"  The  poor  man  who  has  heretofore  been  able  to  send 
his  children  only  to  the  district  school  now  has  the  pleas- 
ure of  seeing  them  securing  the  best  education  that  could 
be  provided  by  the  country." 

"  The  plan  of  centralization  offers  equal  advantages  to 
all  the  children  of  the  township.  It  permits  a  better 
grading  of  schools  and  classification  of  pupils.  It  affords 
an  ojDportunity  for  thorough  work  by  adding  more  weeks 
of  schooling  and  by  the  addition  of  higher  grades  of  study. 
Fewer  but  better  and  more  capable  teachers  will  be  em- 
ployed and  retained;  and,  besides,  it  brings  the  stimu- 
lating influence  of  larger  classes,  with  the  spirit  of  emula- 
tion incident  thereto.  Small  schools  cannot  have  the 
vitalizing  force  that  comes  from  larger  numbers.  Chil- 
dren who  are  transported  in  comfortable  wagons  are  not 
exposed  to  the  rigors  of  inclement  weather.  Tardiness 
and  absence  are  almost  unknown.  The  parents  become 
more  deeply  interested  in  the  schools.  The  result  is  better 
school  buildings,  better  sanitary  conditions,  better  equip- 
ment, and  all  of  this  at  a  less  aggregate  expense  than  under 
the  small  district  plan." 

A.  B.  Graham  sent  inquiries  to  parents  in  townships 
in  Ohio  having  consolidated  schools,  and  secured  the 
information  below: 

"  How  does  the  driver  announce  his  coming?  "  The 
answers  were:  "  By  blowing  a  horn;  "  "  Blows  a  whistle;  " 


232  The  Rural  School 

"  Halloos;  "  "  Doesn't  announce  his  coming;  children 
learn  about  his  regular  times  of  coming." 

"  Does  your  child  stand  and  wait  for  the  wagon?  " 
Every  reply  so  far  is  "  No." 

"  Is  it  necessary  to  clothe  your  child  as  heavily  for  the 
winter  trips  as  under  the  old  plan?  "  Seventy-five  per 
cent  answer  "No";  fifteen  percent  "  No  difference  " ; 
ten  per  cent  "  Yes." 

"  Does  your  child  attend  school  more  regularly  than 
under  the  old  plan?  "  Eighty  per  cent  answer  "  Yes," 
twenty  per  cent  "  See  no  difference." 

"  Does  your  child  show  an  increase  in  its  interest  above 
what  it  was  under  the  old  plan?  "  Ninety  per  cent  answer 
"  Yes,"  ten  per  cent  "  No." 

"  Do  your  teachers  show  an  increase  in  interest  above 
what  was  shown  under  the  old  plan?  "  Ninety  per^cent 
answer  "  Yes,"  five  per  cent  answer  "  No,"  and  five  per 
cent  "  Notice  no  difference." 

"  What  effect  have  centralized  or  consolidated  schools 
on  the  social  and  educational  interests  of  the  township?  " 
Most  who  answered  said  that  there  had  been  great  im- 
provement. 

"  In  the  main,  do  you  feel  favorable  toward  centralized 
or  consolidated  schools  to-day?  "  Seventy-five  per  cent 
of  those  who  at  first  had  objected,  answered  this  question 
by  saying  "  Yes."  Some  on  the  end  of  the  longest  route 
answered  "  No." 

In  Ohio  the  State  Commissioner  of  Education  is  loud  in 
his  commendation  of  the  plan. 

In  Eastern  States.  —  The  president  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts  reports  that 
"  in  Massachusetts,  at  least,  the  plan  of  consoli- 
dation of  rural  schools  is  no  longer  an  experiment,  but 
is  recognized  in   most   of   the   towns  of   the   Common- 


Consolidation  233 

wealth  as  a  means  of  raising  the  standard  of  education 
in  rural  communities. 

In  Connecticut,  consolidation,  as  reported  by  the  state 
superintendent,  has  been  most  advantageous  to  the  state. 

In  New  Jersey  the  advantages  enumerated  in  favor  of 
consolidation  are:  (1)  economy;  (2)  better  teachers  and 
equipment;  (3)  better  supervision;  (4)  regularity  of  at- 
tendance of  pupils;    (5)  better  educational  spirit. 

Report  of  United  States  Commissioner.  —  Wm.  T. 
Harris,  formerly  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, in  his  report  on  the  subject  of  consolidation,  says: 

"  Upon  the  success  of  this  movement  rests  the  chief 
hope  for  the  improvement  of  the  rural  school.  It  is  for- 
tunate that  a  device  which  changes  the  ungraded  school 
into  a  graded  school  involves  a  saving  of  expense.  The 
improvement  is  well  worth  the  trial,  even  were  it  to  double 
the  cost  of  the  rural  school ;  but,  as  will  be  seen  by  statis- 
tics, it  is  secured  with  an  actual  saving  of  expenditure. 
Better  teachers,  more  sanitary  buildings,  less  personal 
expenses  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  better  classification, 
and  many  lesser  advantages  are  commending  this  reform 
to  the  entire  country." 

Modified  Forms  of  Consolidation  —  Superintendent  I. 
J.  Scott  of  Story  County,  Iowa,  has  inaugurated  a  plan  of 
gradation  in  the  schools  of  Grant  township,  which  is, 
to  say  the  least,  unique,  yet  simple  in  its  organization. 
The  pupils  of  each  of  three  adjacent  school  districts  are 
divided  into  three  groups.  In  the  first  group  are  grades 
one  to  three,  in  the  second  group,  grades  four  to  six  and  in 
the  third  group,  grades  seven  to  nine.  Pupils  of  the  first 
group  are  assigned  to  the  central  building,  those  of  the 
second,  to  another,  and  those  of  the  last  group  to  a  third. 
Each  child  is  supposed  to  walk  to  his  own  schoolhouse; 
then,  if  his  group  belongs  in  one  of  the  other  buildings, 


[2341 


Consolidation  235 

he  rides  there  iii  a  conveyance  furnished  by  the  combined 
districts.  By  arranging  the  programs  of  each  school  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  the  driver,  one  school  beginning 
at  nine-thirty  and  another  closing  at  three-thirty,  one 
wagon  conveys  all  pupils  to  and  from  their  respective 
schools.  Two  wagons,  one  starting  at  one  extremity  of 
the  combined  districts  and  the  second  at  the  other,  and 
meeting  at  the  central  house,  exchanging  pupils  and  then 
returning,  would  do  the  work  more  satisfactorily.  At 
night  they  could  be  returned  in  a  similar  manner. 

By  this  plan  schools  in  the  country^can  have  many  of 
the  advantages  of  graded  schools.  ~~""~-— -^ 

The  legislature  of  Minnesota  of  1911  provided"  that 
certain  "  high  schools,  graded  schools  or  consolidated 
rural  schools,  having  satisfactory  rooms  and  equipment  " 
etc.,  might  be  designated  by  the  state  high  school  board 
as  schools  in  which  ^'  an  agricultural  and  industrial  de- 
partment .  .  .  might  be  maintained."  This  department 
consists  of  courses  in  agriculture,  manual  training  and 
home  economics.  With  these  designated  schools  "  one 
or  more  rural  districts  "  may  be  associated.  These  rural 
districts  are  not  to  be  disorganized,  but  unite  in  the  sup- 
port of  these  special  courses.  A  common  tax  of  not  less 
than  two  mills  is  levied.  The  "  Central  School  "  receives 
state  aid  to  the  amount  of  $2500,  and  $150  for  each  asso- 
ciated rural  district.    The  rural  districts  receive  $50  each. 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS 

In  Louisiana.  —  A  commendable  movement  on  foot  in 
Louisiana,  advocated  by  C.  J.  Brown,  State  Rural  School 
Supervisor,  is  worthy  of  consideration  and  imitation  in 
other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  known  there  by  the  term 
"  Standardization  of  Schools."    By  this  plan  it  is  aimed 


236 


The  Rural  School 


to  reduce  the  number  of  grades  in  the  one-room  school  to 
possibly  five;  and  to  centralize  the  upper  two  or  three 
grades  in  a  consolidated  school. 

This  plan  has  a  number  of  commendable  features: 
(1)  It  furnishes  a  school  near  home  for  the  younger  chil- 
dren and  makes  it  possible  to  employ  a  teacher  suited  to 
lower-grade  work.  (2)  Since,  as  a  rule,  there  are  fewer 
pupils  in  the  upper  grades  by  this  plan  it  will  cost  less  for 
transportation  to  the  consolidated  school.  (3)  In  many 
cases  these  older  pupils  can  furnish  their  own  conveyance 
and  thus  obviate  altogether  the  expense  of  transportation 
to  the  district.  (4)  It  will  bring  older  pupils  together  into 
a  school  where  a  man  teacher  may  be  employed  and 
athletics  fostered.  (5)  In  some  states  the  primary  school 
will  want  two  sessions,  a  fall  and  a  spring  session,  with  the 
vacation  in  the  winter,  while  the  consolidated  school 
would  have  but  one,  beginning  in  the  fall  and  closing  in 
the  earl}^  spring.  (6)  Little  or  no  expense  to  the  district 
is  involved.  Where  conditions  lend  themselves  to  this 
plan,  it  would  seem  an  admirable  method  of  consolidation. 
In  Minnesota.  —  To  improve  the  schools  of  this  state, 
aid  is  offered  to  certain  high  schools,  graded  schools  and 
common  schools  which  fulfill  specified  requirements.  "  For 
the  purpose  of  fixing  state  aid  for  common  schools  "  they 
are  classified  as  Class  A,  Class  B,  Class  C.  The  table 
shows  the  requirements  and  the  aid  given  each  class: 


Class 

Teacher 

Term 

Building  and  Equipment 

State  Aid 

Class  A 

1st  Grade 

8  months 

Suitable  Building  and 
other  apparatus 

$150 

Class  B 

2dd      " 

8        " 

(< 

100 

Class  C 

II       (1 

7       " 

II 

75 

Consolidation  237 

In  Wisconsin.  —  For  the  purpose  of  bringing  about 
better  conditions  in  the  country  schools  of  the  state, 
Wisconsin  is  offering  state  aid  to  several  classes  of  her 
schools  which  meet  certain  requirements.  While  the 
state  offers  this  aid  to  other  schools,  we  are  interested  in 
the  "  state  graded  schools  "  and  the  ''  rural  "  schools. 

Of  the  former  there  are  two  classes.  The  first  class 
consists  of  schools  of  three  or  more  departments,  which 
maintain  a  nine  months'  school  taught  by  competent 
teachers,  a  principal  holding  a  state  certificate,  with  as- 
sistants holding  high-grade  certificates  or  teachers  of 
successful  experience. 

Schools  of  two  departments  may  be  state  graded  schools 
of  the  second  class,  providing  they  have  a  principal  who 
holds  a  first-grade  county  certificate.  If  he  holds  a  cer- 
tificate of  lower  grade,  he  must  be  a  teacher  of  successful 
teaching  experience  certified  to  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent.   The  assistant  must  be  a  well  qualified  teacher. 

In  both  classes  the  buildings,  furniture  and  grounds 
must  be  "  maintained  in  good  condition  and  free  from 
any  unsanitary  feature."  "  Sufficient  equipment,  in- 
cluding globes,  maps,  blackboards,  library  and  other 
essentials  for  the  proper  work  of  the  school  shall  be  pro- 
vided by  the  school  district." 

If,  when  inspected  by  the  state  rural  school  inspector, 
a  school  meets  the  requirements  of  a  state  graded  school 
of  the  first  class,  the  state  aids  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
school  to  the  extent  of  |300;  if  of  the  second  class,  $200. 

A  law  passed  by  the  recent  session  of  the  legivslature 
gives  an  additional  $100  to  either  class  of  state  graded 
schools  that  do  strong  work  in  agriculture  and  one  other 
industrial  subject.  Special  state  aid  may  be  withheld 
from  any  school  not  doing  high  grade  work  in  every 
department. 


238  The  Rural  School 

Of  the  rural  schools  there  are  two  classes,  first  and  sec- 
ond. "  Every  school  district  .  .  .  which  shall  have 
maintained  a  school  or  schools  for  eight  months  the  pre- 
vious year;  provided  a  suitable  school  building,  needful 
apparatus,  supplementary  readers;  installed  an  ade- 
quate system  of  ventilation;  and  done  efficient  work, 
shall  ...  be  deemed  to  have  maintained  a  rural  school 
or  schools  of  the  first  class."  A  school  of  this  class  is 
entitled  to  state  aid  to  the  amount  of  fifty  dollars  for 
three  years.  Schools  of  the  second  class  do  not  receive 
any  special  state  aid. 

In  Missouri.  —  It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  offer 
special  state  aid  in  order  to  bring  about  standard  schools; 
indeed,  it  seems  questionable  in  the  mind  of  the  author 
whether  this  is  the  better  method.  What  is  needed  is  an 
awakened  public  sentiment  for  better  schools  in  the  coun- 
try; and  probably,  a  better  and  purer  public  opinion 
can  be  aroused  without  state  aid  than  with  it. 

Without  prize  money  but  with  the  aid  of  county 
superintendents  and  a  rural  school  inspector,  Wm.  P. 
Evans,  State  Superintendent  of  Missouri,  has  under- 
taken to  raise  the  standard  of  the  schools  of  his  state. 
He  says:  "  The  first  plan  for  approval  of  rural  schools 
was  promulgated  in  1909.  It  led  at  once  to  increased 
interest,  on  the  part  of  many  communities,  in  the  grading 
of  the  school,  in  attendance  and  in  better  buildings  and 
grounds.  Nearly  three  hundred  schools  have  been 
placed  on  the  approved  list,  and  many  others  are  taking 
such  steps  as  will  lead  to  their  approval  in  the  near 
future."  The  county  superintendent  and  inspector  "  ap- 
prove "  a  school  when  it  reaches  the  required  standard. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  a  school  is  up  to  stand- 
ard or  not,  eighty  out  of  a  possible  one  hundred  points 
must    be    earned.     Twenty    of   these    hundred   points 


Consolidation  239 

are  based  on  the  Condition  of  the  School  Building;  sev- 
enteen, on  Apparatus  and  Equipment  of  Building;  thir- 
teen, on  Grounds  and  Outbuildings;  twenty-five,  on 
the  Course  of  Study  and  Organization;  twenty-five,  on 
the  Teacher. 

''  Before  a  school  will  be  approved  it  must  comply  with 
the  following  requirements:  (1)  The  term  must  be  at 
least  eight  months  in  length.  (2)  The  teacher  must  hold 
a  certificate  higher  than  a  third-grade  county.  (3)  The 
salary  paid  the  teacher  must  be  at  least  forty  dollars  per 
month.  (4)  The  board  must  have  complied  with  the 
library  law,  section  818G,  R.  S.  1909.  (5)  The  state  course 
of  study  must  be  followed.  (6)  The  organization  and 
classification  of  the  school  must  be  definite  and  sys- 
tematic. (7)  The  instruction  and  discipline  must  be 
satisfactory.  (8)  The  school  buildings,  grounds  and  out- 
buildings must  be  adequate,  clean  and  sanitary.  (9)  The 
room  must  be  heated  by  other  means  than  radiation. 
(10)  The  teacher  must  be  a  regular  attendant  at  county 
and  to^\^lship  meetings.  (11)  A  satisfactory  program  of 
recitation  and  study  must  be  posted  conspicuously."  The 
legislature  in  the  1913  session  has  provided  for  state  aid 
to  weak  districts  under  certain  conditions. 

In  Illinois.  —  In  the  arousing  of  sentiment  for  better 
conditions  in  country  schools,  a  rural  school  inspector  is 
of  inestimable  value.  Illinois  now  has  two  supervisors 
under  the  direction  of  the  state  superintendent.  With 
the  aid  of  these  supervisors,  Francis  G.  Blair,  State  Super- 
intendent of  Illinois,  has  been  able  to  take  advanced 
ground  in  the  movement  of  standardization  of  rural 
schools.  From  his  bulletin,  "  The  One-Room  and  Village 
Schools  of  Illinois,"  for  1912,  the  following  is  quoted: 
"  The  supervisors  of  country  and  village  schools  upon 
invitation   of   the   county   superintendent,   will   visit   a 


240  The  Rural  School 

county  spending  two  or  three  days  inspecting  schools  in 
all  parts  of  the  county.  The  directors  will  be  invited 
to  be  present.  The  grounds,  house,  furnishings,  heating, 
ventilation,  library,  water  supply,  outhouses,  qualifica- 
tions of  the  teacher,  teaching  and  conduct  of  the  school 
will  be  inspected,  and  when  the  essentials  of  a  good  school 
are  found  present,  a  diploma  will  be  granted  it  as  a  stand- 
ard school.  A  plate  bearing  the  words  '  Standard 
School '  or  *  Superior  School '  will  be  placed  on  the 
door.  The  diploma  and  plate  will  be  subject  to  recall  if 
the  school  fails  to  keep  up  to  the  standard.  It  will  be 
the  policy,  not  simply  to  find  fault,  but  to  assist  in  find- 
ing out  what  the  schools  really  need  and  to  encourage 
improvement." 

"...  Seven  hundred  schools  have  been  standardized. 
Not  more  than  one  fifth  of  these  were  up  to  standard 
when  inspected.  Four  fifths  of  them  were  brought  up 
after  inspection  by  the  state  supervisor  and  the  county 
superintendent. ' ' 

"  On  the  whole  the  work  is  very  encouraging.  County 
superintendents,  school  officers,  teachers  and  parents 
have  responded  as  soon  as  the  matter  was  clearly  before 
them.  Some  counties  have  already  half  their  schools 
on  the  standard  list.  We  have  every  reason  to  expect 
that  in  a  few  years  ninety  per  cent  of  the  schools  of  some 
counties  will  take  rank  as  standard  schools." 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  A  STANDARD   SCHOOL 

Following  are  the  requirements  for  a  standard  school 
as  outlined  by  Superintendent  Blair: 

Yard  and  Outbuildings:  1.  Ample  playground.  2.  Good 
approaches  to  the  house.  3.  Two  well-kept,  widely  sepa- 
rated outhouses.    4.  Convenient  fuel  house.     The  School- 


Consolidation  241 

house:    1.  House  well  built,  in  good  repair  and  painted. 

2.  Good  foundation.  3.  Well  lighted.  4.  Attractive  interior 
decorations.  5.  Good  blackboards,  some  suitable  for  small 
children.  6.  Heated  with  jacketed  stove  in  the  corner,  or 
a  room  heater  and  ventilator  in  the  corner,  or  basement 
furnace  which  brings  clean  air  in  through  the  furnace  and 
removes  foul  air  from  the  room.  7.  Floor  clean  and  tidy. 
Furnishings  and  Supplies:  1.  Desks  suitable  for  children 
of    all   ages,  properly  placed.    2.    Good   teacher's   desk. 

3.  Good  bookcase.  4.  A  good  collection  of  juvenile  books 
suitable  as  aids  to  school  work  as  well  as  general  reading. 
Pupils'  Reading  Circle  organized.  5.  Set  of  good  maps,  a 
globe,  dictionaries,  sanitary  water  supply.  The  Organi- 
zation: 1.  School  well  organized.  2.  Classification  and 
daily  register  well  kept.    3.  Definite  program  of  study. 

4.  Program  of  recitation.  5.  Attendance  regular.  6.  At 
least  seven  months  of  school.  7.  Discipline  good.  The 
Teacher:  1.  The  equivalent  of  a  high  school  education. 
2.  Must  receive  at  least  $360  per  annum.  3.  Ranked  by 
the  county  superintendent  as  a  good  or  superior  teacher. 
4.  Must  read  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  books  and  attend 
institutes  and  meetings. 

Superintendent  Blair  says,  "  Many  school  oflftcers  have 
not  only  expressed  themselves  in  favor  of  having  the 
essentials  of  a  good  school,  but  they  want  their  school  to 
be  as  nearly  right  as  it  can  be  made.  To  encourage  this 
laudable  desire  a  diploma  will  be  offered  to  a  Superior 
One-room  School."  The  requirements  for  a  superior 
school  are  along  the  same  lines  as  for  a  standard  school, 
except  they  are  more  complete  and  rigid.  Along  similar 
lines  the  schools  of  villages  and  small  towns  will  be 
standardized.  Read  these  requirements  for  a  standard 
graded  school:  1.  The  discipline  must  make  good  work 
possible  and  tend  to  establish  sound  character.    2.  If  the 


242  The  Rural  School 

school  does  only  eight  years  of  work,  pupils  must  be  well 
prepared  for  first  year  of  high  school.  3.  If  the  school  does 
ten  years  of  work,  the  9th  and  10th  years  must  be  equal 
to  the  first  two  years  of  the  course  of  a  good  four-year 
high  school. 

When  rural  schools  can  be  brought  up  to  the  above 
standards,  good  work  will  be  possible  in  the  one-room 
comitry  school. 

REFERENCES 

Fairchild,  Consolidation.  State  Supt.  of  Public  In- 
struction, Topeka,  Kansas. 

Kern,  Among  Country  Schools.  1906.  Ginn  &  Co., 
$1.50. 

Kern,  The  John  Swaney  Consolidated  Country  School 
in  Magnolia  Township,  Putnam  County,  Illinois.  N.  E.  A. 
Proceedings  1908:  420. 

Kern,  New  Kind  of  Country  School.  World's  Work  16: 
10720  (Sept.,  1908). 

Knorr,  Organization  of  a  County  System.  1910.  (Bulle- 
tin, Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture.) Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  15c. 


PART  II 
RURAL    SCHOOL   METHODS 


Chapter  1 

PRIMARY   READmG 
IMPORTANCE  OF  READING 

The  importance  of  reading  is  hard  to  overestimate. 
It  is  the  foundation  stone  upon  which  all  education  is 
based.  It  is  the  door  which  admits  one  to  the  store- 
house which  contains  the  products  of  the  master  minds 
in  all  fields  and  of  all  periods.  Literature,  natural  sciences 
and  mathematics  must  be  approached  largely  through 
this  avenue.  It  is  the  first  and  most  important  means 
at  man's  command  of  coming  into  contact  not  only  with 
the  rudiments  of  learning  but  with  the  best  and  latest  word 
on  any  and  all  subjects  of  past  or  present  interest.  By 
this  means  we  are  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  doings  of 
the  world,  —  the  current  events  which  make  future  his- 
tory, —  with  the  latest  finding  in  the  fields  of  science  and 
art  and  mechanics.  To  but  few  are  given  the  time,  the 
opportunity,  the  means,  to  do  original  research  work,  to 
travel,  to  study  at  the  best  schools  or  to  investigate 
sociological  and  kindred  conditions  at  first  hand,  but  by 
means  of  books  the  results  of  such  work  are  brought  di- 
rectly to  us  at  little  cost  or  trouble.  He  who  enables  one 
to  take  advantage  of  these  efforts  of  others  by  teaching 
him  to  read  understandingly  and  to  like  reading  for  its 
own  sake  has  performed  a  great  service.  He  has  placed 
at  one's  command  the  means  by  which  he  may  obtain 

245 


246  The  Rural  School 

instruction,  entertainment  and   pleasure  independent  of 
season,  friends  or  financial  conditions. 

In  spite  of  the  importance  of  this  subject  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  first  and  ahnost  the  last  subject  taught  in 
the  rural  schools,  it  continues  to  be  one  of  the  most  poorly 
taught  subjects  of  the  common  school  course.  It  is  taught 
as  a  duty,  as  a  matter  of  course,  but  with  little  thought 
about  it  except  that  it  is  a  means  of  learning  to  pronounce 
words.  In  this  respect  the  spelling  book  might  just  as 
well  be  used  as  a  textbook  with  but  little  difference  in 
results.  In  fact,  much  of  the  so-called  reading  is  little  else 
than  a  naming  of  words. 

KINDS  OF  READING 

Silent  Reading  and  Oral  Reading.  —  Reading  is  of  two 
kinds,  silent,  or  mental,  and  oral,  or  vocal.  Silent  reading 
is  of  first  importance  because  the  greater  part  of  what 
one  reads  is  read  thus  for  his  own  pleasure  and  profit, 
and  because  his  oral  expression  of  thought  is  entirely  de- 
pendent upon  his  mental  grasp  of  the  thought  to  be 
expressed,  plus  the  mechanics  of  effective  speech.  Al- 
though the  chief  end  and  aim  of  teaching  reading  is  to 
render  one  a  good  silent  reader,  it  is  through  the  agency 
of  oral  reading  that  the  teacher  is  enabled  to  do  this.  By 
oral  reading,  mainly,  is  he  able  to  judge  of  the  pupil's 
ability  to  understand  and  translate  the  thought  of  the 
printed  page,  and  it  is  only  by  this  means  that  he  can 
correct  errors,  direct  the  mind  into  right  channels  and 
assist  the  mental  concept  by  insuring  for  it  the  proper 
physical  expression.  Although  the  oral  expression  of  a 
thought  cannot  excel  the  reader's  concept  of  the  same, 
yet  the  knowledge  of  the  pupil's  idea,  gained  through  his 
oral  expression  of  it,  enables  the  teacher  to  approve  or  to 


Primary  Reading  247 

improve  the  pupil's  grasp  of  the  thought.  Hence,  we 
must  concern  ourselves  chiefly  with  obtaining  correct 
oral  expression  as  an  indication  that  the  mind  is  getting 
the  desired  idea.  Silent  reading  is  a  ihoxight-getting 
process,  oral  reading  is  a  thought-^mwg  process.  Thought- 
getting  must  precede  thought-giving.  As  the  child  must 
generall}^  get  the  thought  which  he  gives  from  the  printed 
expression  of  it,  the  chief  work  of  the  teacher  of  primary 
reading  is  the  development  of  the  ability  to  interpret  the 
printed  page.  As  this  power  increases,  more  emphasis 
is  given  to  control  of  voice  and  body  and  the  various 
physical  attributes  concerned  in  the  oral  expression  of 
the  thought,  but  in  no  stage  of  the  work  can  the  two 
lines  be  entirely  separated,  nor  can  any  sharp  line  be 
drawn  to  indicate  where  one  ends  and  another  begins. 
As  the  pupil  advances  there  should  be  less  difficulty  in 
thought-getting  and  greater  ease  in  thought-giving. 

What  Constitutes  Good  Oral  Reading.  —  Good  oral 
reading  consists  mainly  in  reading  as  one  would  wish 
others  to  tell  it  to  him  in  those  words.  Judged  by  this 
simple  standard,  there  is  much  poor  reading,  for  it  is 
remarkable  how  seldom  one  hears  the  natural  speaking 
tone  used  by  the  average  reader  in  school.  Instead,  there 
is  heard  the  high  pitch,  the  halting  or  the  drawling  man- 
ner, a  too  loud,  a  too  low, or  a  muffled,  indistinct  tone. 
There  is  little  or  no  attempt  either  to  understand  or  to 
express  the  author's  thought  and  the  reader  rushes  or 
drags  through  the  selection  as  his  familiarity  with  the 
words  or  his  lack  of  it  will  permit.  This  is  all  the  more 
deplorable  because  the  teaching  of  reading  maj^  easily  be 
made  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  satisfying  of  all 
the  common  school  subjects,  and  a  subject  in  which  one 
may  quickly  see  the  results  of  earnest  effort  and  the 
use  of  proper  methods. 


248  The  Rural  School 

METHODS   OF  TEACHING  READING 

As  has  been  said  before,  the  province  of  teaching  pri- 
mary reading  is  chiefly  to  put  a  child  into  possession  of 
the  means  of  thought-getting.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary 
ineffaceably  to  impress  certain  forms  upon  the  child's 
mind  so  that  he  shall  not  only  know  these  forms  but  shall 
be  able  to  use  them  in  the  recognition  or  determination 
of  other  forms  to  be  met  in  the  future.  The  mastery  of 
these  symbols  will  be  discussed  under  the  different  methods 
which  have  been  or  are  used  in  teaching  primary  reading. 

Aim  of  All  Methods.  —  Of  these  methods  there  are 
many,  but  when  used  alone,  no  method  is  without  its  de- 
fects. In  all  methods  the  final  end  is  the  same,  regardless 
of  the  means  employed  to  secure  it.  This  end  is  the  ready 
recognition  and  easy  use  of  the  written  symbols  of  ideas 
and  thoughts  as  expressed  by  words  and  sentences. 
By  whatever  means  this  is  secured,  certain  things  must 
be  accomplished  before  the  child  is  fully  equipped  for 
efficient,  independent  work,  before  he  is  in  possession  of 
all  the  instruments  which  he  needs  for  the  mastery  of 
the  art  of  reading.  He  must  recognize  words  and  groups 
of  words,  he  must  know  letter  forms,  sounds  and  names 
and  how  to  combine  sounds  and  forms.  He  must  acquire 
the  habit,  unconsciously  perhaps,  of  looking  upon  the 
words  not  as  an  end  in  themselves,  but  as  a  means  to  an 
end,  and  that  end,  the  thought  bound  up  in  the  words. 
The  words  are  only  the  shell  of  the  nut  which  must  be 
cracked  before  he  can  obtain  the  meat.  For  this  reason 
too,  the  sentences  presented  to  the  child  before  he  begins 
the  study  of  reading  in  a  book  should  not  be  merely  a 
string  of  words.  The  first  book  of  a  series  of  readers 
especially  should  have  real  literary  value  in  order  that 
a  taste  for  good  reading  may  be  acquired. 


Primary  Reading  249 

The  best  method,  then,  is  the  one  that  enables  the  child 
to  become  an  independent  reader  with  the  least  expense 
of  time,  and  with  the  greatest  degree  of  interest  and 
pleasure.  He  should  early  acquire  some  way  of  deter- 
mining new  words,  and  this  should  proceed  gradually 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

Various  Methods.  —  The  principal  methods  of  teaching 
reading  are:  The  Alphabetic,  the  Word,  the  Phonetic, 
the  Phonic,  the  Sentence  and  the  Rational  method.  Each 
method  chooses  a  different  basis  for  the  point  of  attack 
in  learning  to  recognize  sight  symbols  and  in  connecting 
the  symbols  with  the  corresponding  sounds.  Each  of 
these  methods  has  had  its  advocates  who  proclaimed  it 
the  sole  and  only  good  system;  but  the  test  of  use  has 
shown  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  each  in  turn. 
By  each,  many  thousands  have  learned  to  read,  though 
often  in  spite  of  the  method.  No  one  of  them  is  without 
some  weakness,  but  long  experience  and  careful  observa- 
tion has  shown  that  a  judicious  use  of  the  best  features 
of  several  different  methods  produces  a  method  which 
gives  a  proficiency  and  a  broadness  which  is  not 
otherwise  possible. 

The  Alphabetic  Method.  — The  alphabetic  method, 
which  fortunately  has  fallen  into  quite  general  disrepute 
and  disuse  in  recent  years,  has  few  claims  to  merit  except 
that  of  teaching  the  names  of  the  letters  —  which  is  in 
no  sense  learning  to  read  —  and  that,  perhaps,  it  helps 
to  make  good  spellers,  which  also  has  nothing  to  do  with 
good  reading.  Its  advocates  proceed  on  the  theory  that 
naming  the  letters  will  assist  in  pronouncing  the  word. 
That  nothing  is  farther  from  the  truth  must  be  evident 
when  one  studies  a  few  words  and  attempts  to  pronounce 
them  by  combining  the  names  of  the  letters  that  compose 
them.    Cow  becomes  se-o-double  u.    Instead  of  pronounc- 


250  The  Rural  School 

ing  cow,  he  really  says  four  other  words,  see,  o,  double, 
you.  Man  becomes  em-a-en  and  hand,  aitch-a-en-d. 
Also,  kt  spells  Katie  and  nme  spells  enemy.  From  these 
examples  it  is  seen  that,  instead  of  being  a  help,  the  names 
of  the  letters  are  an  actual  hindrance  to  correct  pronun- 
ciation. That  which  really  happens  in  the  use  of  the  al- 
phabetic method  is  one  or  the  other  of  two  things.  The 
letters  are  named  and  then  the  teacher  pronounces  the 
word.  After  countless  repetitions  of  this  sort  the  mind 
becomes  indistinctly  conscious  that  a  certain  character 
represents  a  certain  sound  —  not  the  name  —  though  the 
sound,  in  all  probability,  could  not  be  given  apart  from 
the  word.  Were  the  attention  directed  at  once  to  the 
sounds  represented  by  the  letters,  how  much  time  and 
useless  effort  would  be  saved.  The  other  process  is  that 
which  occurs  in  the  use  of  the  word  method.  That  is,  by 
constant  repetition  the  child  associates  the  name  with 
the  form  of  the  word  as  a  whole.  Thus  we  again  find  that 
the  names  of  the  letters  are  simply  useless  material  that 
cumber  the  mind  and  distract  attention  from  the  real 
matter  and  might  much  better  be  left  to  be  learned  inci- 
dentally as  the  need  for  them  arises  later. 

The  Word  Method.  —  The  word  method  places  the  em- 
phasis upon  the  word  instead  of  upon  the  letter  as  the 
unit  in  learning  to  read.  The  words  are  simply  taken  as 
wholes  without  any  consideration  of  the  letters  or  sounds 
which  compose  them.  The  word  to  be  learned  is  given, 
preceded  by  object  or  picture,  when  possible,  and  the 
pupil  or  teacher  gives  its  name.  The  natural  order  of 
presentation  should  be,  object  or  picture,  spoken  word, 
written  word,  and    later,  elementary  sounds  and  letters. 

After  words  are  given  they  must  be  reviewed  again  and 
again  until  their  recognition  becomes  instantaneous  and 
accurate.    The  chief  objection  to  this  method  is  the  fact 


Primary  Reading  251 

that  the  pupil  remains  too  dependent  upon  the  teacher 
for  each  new  word.  Each  word  stands  out  alone  and  no 
means  of  correlation  and  comparison  gives  ability  to 
pronounce  new  words.  Sooner  or  later  many  pupils  do 
this  but  it  is  not  an  integral  part  of  the  word  method.  One 
advantage  of  this  method  is  that  it  is  logical.  It  begins 
with  the  single  word,  which  is  the  unit  of  child  language. 
His  first  speech  consists  not  of  letters,  elementary  sounds 
or  sentences,  but  of  single  words  or  at  the  most  of  phrases. 
These  words  are  names,  "  mamma,"  "  dog,"  "  drink," 
etc.  Then  come  words  of  action,  "  see,"  "  go,"  "  run," 
"  take,"  or  "  mamma  take,"  etc.,  and  these  are  soon 
followed  by  adjectives,  as  qualifying  words,  ''  pretty," 
"  little,"  "  good,"  etc.  The  personal  element  appears 
early  also,  and  "  my,"  "  I,"  "  me,"  etc.,  are  heard. 
Soon  these  are  joined  into  simple  sentences.  In  about 
this  order,  words  may  be  presented  to  the  child  who  is 
learning  to  read,  but  words  alone  should  be  presented 
for  a  few  lessons  onl}^  As  soon  as  the  stock  of  sight 
words  will  permit  it,  these  should  be  combined  into  sen- 
tences, or  stories,  as  the  children  like  to  call  them. 

The  Sentence  Method.  —  The  sentence  method  is  ad- 
vocated by  those  who  claim  that  the  sentence,  rather 
than  the  word,  should  be  considered  as  the  basis,  or 
unit  of  speech.  Complete  sentences  are  given  from  the 
beginning,  on  the  theory  that  the  sentence  is  the  only 
unit  that  expresses  a  complete  thought  and,  since  reading 
is  a  process  of  thought-getting  and  thought-giving,  it  is 
illogical  to  begin  with  an  incomplete  thought.  The  ad- 
vocates of  the  word  method  and  of  the  sentence  method, 
however,  do  agree  in  insisting  that  the  unit  with  which 
they  begin  shall  have  meaning  and  be  capable  of  analysis 
rather  than  that  meaningless  fragments  must  be  pieced 
together  like  a  puzzle  before  they  have  any  value.    The 


252  The  Rural  School 

sentence  method  demands  conversation,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sentence  orally  and  then  its  presentation  in 
written  form.  This  is  then  given  back  by  the  pupils.  In 
the  beginning  no  attention  is  given  to  the  division  of  the 
sentence  into  words.  The  whole  sentence  is  given  by 
the  teacher,  and  the  pupils  are  expected  to  recognize  it  as 
a  whole.  Sentences  containing  the  same  words  combined 
in  various  ways  should  be  given.  One  can  readily  see 
that  the  same  combination  of  words  cannot  be  used 
frequently  enough  to  give  ready  recognition  of  more  than 
fragments  of  sentences.  As  the  pupils  note  these  similar 
groups  and,  finally,  the  individual  words,  the  sentence 
method  lapses  into  the  word  method  just  as,  when  the 
child  begins  to  combine  the  words  into  sentences,  the 
word  method  merges  into  the  sentence  method.  For, 
if  the  teacher  insists,  as  he  should,  that  the  whole  thought 
be  grasped  mentally  before  any  oral  expression  be  given, 
he  has  crossed  completely  over  from  the  one  method  to 
the  other.  The  skillful  teacher  will  secure  excellent 
results  by  the  use  of  the  sentence  method,  but,  when  time 
is  limited  and  the  teacher  is  not  an  expert,  usually  much 
better  results  will  be  secured  by  means  of  the  word  method. 

The  Phonetic  Method.  —  The  phonetic  method  employs 
all  the  elementary  sounds  with  their  diacritical  mark- 
ings.   The  silent  characters  are  usually  omitted. 

A  specially  prepared  book  must  be  used  in  taking  up 
this  method.  After  the  child  learns  to  read,  this  system 
is  abandoned  and  another  taught  him.  It  is  therefore 
very  impractical,  discoimected,  uninteresting,  and  wholly 
a  matter  of  memory. 

The  Phonic  Method.  —  The  phonic  method  has  all  the 
advantages  of  the  phonetic  method  and  more,  without 
some  of  its  disadvantages.  It  also  makes  early  and 
constant  use  of  the  elementary  sounds,  making  them,  as 


Primary  Reading  253 

does  the  phonetic  method,  the  basis  of  teaching.  It  em- 
ploys all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  to  indicate  particular 
somids  and  then  uses  diacritical  markings  to  indicate 
the  additional  somids  of  the  language.  All  this  must  be 
taught  just  as  the  a,  b,  c's  are  taught  and  is  open  to  the 
same  objections,  but,  unhke  the  phonetic  method,  it  does 
not  require  specially  printed  books  for  its  use,  nor  the 
learning  of  two  forms  of  the  same  word.  All  new  v/ords  are 
learned  by  the  combination  of  these  elementary  sounds. 
The  Rational  Method.  —  A  modified  phonic  method 
originated  by  the  late  Edward  G.  Ward,  superintendent 
of  the  Brookl^ai  schools,  makes  use  of  all  these  simple 
forms  and  also  recognizes  and  employs  numerous  com- 
binations of  sounds,  which  appear  frequently  as  an  aid 
to  ready  recognition  of  new  words.  Some  of  these  com- 
binations are,  "  ing,"  "old,"  '' ight,"  "  ite,"  "  ness," 
"  ish,"  etc.  Their  use  lightens  the  work  materially,  for 
this  grouping  requires  but  one  mental  effort  where, 
otherwise,  several  would  be  necessary.  It  also  compels 
recognition  of  the  common  element  in  a  great  many 
words  and  makes  their  mastery  easy.  These  phonic 
symbols  are  called  phonograms  and  are  divided  into 
simple  and  compound.  The  simple  ones  are  the  regular 
elementary  sounds,  and  the  compound  ones  are,  "  ing," 
"  old,"  etc.,  such  as  have  been  mentioned  as  occurring 
frequently  enough  to  be  of  advantage  in  learning  many 
other  words.  Others  of  these  are,  "  an,"  "  at,"  "  all," 
"  ail,"  etc.,  which  give  rise  to  such  lists  of  words  as,  can, 
ban,  T)an;  hat,  cat,  iat;  call,  hall,  iall;  hail,  iail,  hail; 
etc.  In  using  them,  the  compound  phonogram  is  recog- 
nized and  then  the  pupil  has  only  to  sound  the  simple 
phonogram  and  combine  it  with  the  compound  one  in 
order  to  pronounce  the  word.  It  does  not  require  great 
effort,  if  one  knows  that  c-at  is  cat,  to  infer  that  r-at  is  rat. 


Chapter  11 
PRIMARY  READING  (Continued) 

Having  set  forth  in  the  previous  chapter  the  chief 
attributes  of  the  various  methods,  it  may  not  now  be 
hard  to  concede  that  the  ideal  method  of  teaching  primary 
reading  is  not  by  any  particular  one  of  these,  but  by  a 
combination  of  the  word  and  the  modified  phonic  methods 
with  the  early  use  of  words  in  sentences.  Experience 
proves  that  pupils  learn,  thus,  to  read  quickly  and  skill- 
fully, because  the  phonic  feature  gives  independence,  the 
word  feature  gives  them  a  large  initial  stock  of  material 
for  reading  matter,  and  the  sentence  feature  requires 
thought  and  brings  about  smoothness  and  naturalness 
of  expression. 

In  the  next  several  paragraphs,  for  the  sake  of  con- 
nection and  further  emphasis,  several  things  already  men- 
tioned will  be  repeated. 

THE   COMBINED   METHOD 

A  Bad  Habit.  —  One  of  the  worst  habits,  and  one  of  the 
most  distressing  to  hear,  which  children  are  often  allowed 
to  contract,  is  that  of  droning  over  and  drawling  cat  the 
words  of  the  reading  without  expressing  any  meaning 
or  obtaining  any  for  himself.  No  child  should  be  allowed 
to  express  a  sentence  without  first  having  gotten  the  full 
idea  to  be  expressed.     This  makes  a  perfect  knowledge 

254 


Primary  Reading  255 

of  the  words  most  essential,  hence  much  and  careful  word 
drill  must  precede  the  reading. 

Learning  Words.  —  The  more  words  one  knows  per- 
fectly, the  more  readily  and  fluently  he  will  read.  The 
first  few  weeks  of  school  life  may  be  termed  the  word- 
getting  period.  The  time  will  vary  from  five  to  ten  weeks 
according  to  the  age  and  ability  of  the  pupils.  The 
words  should  be  given  as  fast  as  the  child  can  master 
them,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  he  does  master 
them  and  that,  by  constant  reviews,  the  old  words  are 
not  crowded  out  by  the  new.  Time  spent  in  insuring  this 
in  the  beginning  will  be  time  saved  for  the  future.  That 
the  child  may  not  tire  of  these  constant  reviews,  it  is 
necessary  that  they  be  presented  in  as  many  ways  as 
possible.  Go  daisy  picking  or  rabbit  hunting,  gather 
autumn  leaves,  throw  snowballs,  make  a  tree  of  words 
and  call  them  apples  or  Christmas  presents,  then  see  who 
can  pick  the  most  apples  or  name  the  most  presents 
without  missing.  Find  a  certain  number  or  all  the  words 
of  one  kind,  see  who  can  fuid  certain  words  first,  etc.,  etc. 

The  First  Words.  —  A  few  of  the  first  lessons  must 
consist,  necessarily,  of  detached  words.  Naturally,  these 
should  be  names  of  common  objects  and  action  words, 
because  the  noun  and  the  verb  are  the  foundation  of  the 
sentence.  They  should  be  words,  too,  which  are  fomid 
in  the  child's  own  vocabulary.  If  possible,  he  should  be 
led  to  use  the  words  himself  before  they  are  presented  to 
him  in  written  form.  At  first,  he  must  simply  be  told 
the  word  and  made  to  understand  that  this  written  form 
is  just  another  way  of  saymg  the  same  thing  which  he 
has  said. 

It  is  well  to  choose  the  names  of  objects  that  can  be 
represented  easily  by  the  objects  themselves  and  by  pic- 
tures   and    drawings,   e.  g.,  boy,    dog,  flower,  box,   baby, 


256  The  Rural  School 

bird,  nest,  apple,  etc.  This  gives  them  a  reahty  and  they 
easily  become  the  subject  of  conversation.  From  this  one 
can  approach  the  word  form  without  abruptness.  The 
verb  forms  may  be  those  which  the  child  frequently  uses, 
or  those  which  he  can  illustrate  by  the  action  itself,  as, 
see,  run,  sing,  etc.  The  personal  element  is  soon  added 
by  the  use  of  /  and  my.  The  little  words,  a,  an, 
and  the  must  be  given  early.  After  their  first  intro- 
duction, the  close  combination  of  these  words  with  their 
accompanying  nomis,  almost  as  though  they  were  one 
word,  will  avoid  the  bad  habit,  so  common,  of  empha- 
sizing the  "  a  "  and  the  ''  the  "  and  saying  a  man,  the 
boy,  etc.  From  the  first  these  words  should  be  slurred 
into  the  next  word,  thu  man,  a  (ii)  little  boy.  For  a  time 
it  is  helpful  to  illustrate  this  close  comiection  graphically 
by  drawing  a  line  below  the  group,  thus :  a  bird,  the  baby. 
This  same  plan  is  convenient  and  helpful  to  illustrate 
the  natural  word  grouping  found  in  speech  and  to  assist 
in  securing  proper  expression:  I  see  the  dog.  I  can  see 
the  little  dog.  My  baby  can  see  the  bird  in  the  big  green 
tree.     Run,  my  little  dog,  run  to  me. 


A  child's  initial  stock  of  words  does  not,  necessarily, 
consist  of  the  shortest  words  alone,  for  he  is  using  sight 
and  form  as  means  of  recognition,  and  the  words,  baby, 
apple,  flower,  mamma,  etc.,  are  as  characteristic  in  form 
and  as  much  a  part  of  his  vocabulary  as,  cat,  dog,  and 
boy.  The  sight  words,  however,  should  be  mainly  those 
the  child  will  meet  when  he  takes  up  his  first  book,  with 
such  others  as  the  teacher  may  need  to  carry  out  her 
scheme  of  lessons. 

A  Knowledge  of  Phonics.  —  During  the  period  when 
the  pupil  is  mainly  occupied  in  word-getting  he  should 
be  laying  the  foundation  for  future  independence  in  this 
respect  by  building  up  a  knowledge  of  phonics.     The 


Primary  Reading  257 

child  is  gradually  introduced  to  his  new  words  by  a  blend- 
ing of  the  elementary  sounds,  or  a  process  of  slow  pronoun- 
cing of  words  Avhose  sounds  blend  easily,  and  continues 
the  work  in  increasing  amount,  the  teacher  giving  the 
sound  until  the  pupil's  ear  becomes  accurate  and  he  can 
pronounce  readily  by  this  means.  The  pupils  may  then  be 
encouraged  to  sound  some  new  words  with  the  teacher 
to  see  if  they  can  tell  what  the  sounds  say.  By  choosing 
words  that  possess  no  difficulty,  they  will  be  pleased  to 
find  that  they  can  both  sound  and  pronounce  the  words. 

They  are  ready  then  to  begui  the  analysis  of  some 
written  words  which  they  already  know  by  sight.  The 
teacher  may  point  out  and  sound  the  parts  of  the  word 
h-at,  m-at,  m-d-d^,  m-d-kf,  h-an-d,  trr-ef.  By  using  a 
number  of  words  having  one  or  more  common  elements  the 
child  will  soon  recognize  them  and  associate  form  and 
sound,  e.  g.,  mdy,  make,  made  ;  me,  se^,  tre^;  hall,  iall,  call, 
etc.  The  characters  may  then  be  separated,  using,  at  first, 
those  whose  sounds  are  easily  made  and  which  have  but 
one  sound,  as,  1,  f,  m,  t,  h.  Drill  on  these  sounds  similarly 
to  the  way  in  which  the  sight  words  were  drilled  upon  until 
sound  and  form  are  associated.  Ask  pupils  to  name  / 
words  (use  names  of  sounds,  not  letters,  in  asking  for 
these  words),  m  words,  t  words,  etc.  Gradually  include 
long  and  short  vowels  and  other  consonants. 

When  the  list  is  sufficiently  large  and  well  known,  the 
child  should  be  encouraged  to  work  out  new  words  for 
himself.  Many  new  words  will  fall  wholly  within  his  field 
of  knowledge;  others  he  can  pronounce  by  hearing  the 
teacher  sound  them,  and  some,  whose  peculiar  formation 
might  be  misleading,  had  better  be  given  as  sight  words 
until  some  future  time,  when  an  explanation  will  be 
understood.  When  we  take  up  the  sounding  of  the  written 
forms,  it  is  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 


258  The  Rural  School 

some  words  have  letters  that  say  nothing,  that  is,  are 
silent  and,  hence,  are  sometimes  marked  out.  Special 
attention  should  now  be  called  to  the  compound  phono- 
grams that  they  may  be  made  daily  use  of  in  self-help  to 
proper  pronunciation.  Children  may  be  asked  to  give 
ight  words,  ail  words,  old  words,  etc.,  just  as  they  were 
required  to  give  words  containing  the  single  phonograms. 
In  case  of  occasional  confusion  of  similar  words,  such,  for 
instance,  as  lack,  back,  and  black,  only  the  dissimilar  part 
need  receive  special  attention  to  secure  its  correct  pro- 
nunciation. Drill  cards,  similar  to  the  word  cards  men- 
tioned elsewhere,  may  be  used  for  frequent  and  rapid 
drill  in  any  and  all  the  ways  suggested  for  the  use  of  the 
word  cards.  Above  all,  from  this  time  forth,  the  teacher 
should  help  the  child  to  help  himself  but  should  pro- 
nounce, outright,  no  word  which  the  child  can  determine 
for  himself.  After  sounds  and  forms  are  closely  associated 
in  thought,  it  does  no  harm  to  mention,  incidentally,  the 
names  of  the  letters,  though  this  is  not  necessary  until 
pupils  begin  to  spell. 

Spelling.  —  It  may  be  well  to  mention  here  that  spelling 
by  letter  is  not  a  part  of  the  general  plan  until  about  the 
time  the  pupils  take  up  the  use  of  the  book.  One  must 
not  imagine,  however,  that  pupils  are  not  learning  any- 
thing of  the  subject  of  spelling.  They  are  getting  word 
forms  and  letter  sounds  which  will  make  the  spelling  of 
their  stock  of  sight  words  and  of  the  new  words,  as  they 
come,  so  easy  that  the  average  pupil  will  very  soon  master 
all  the  old  words  as  well  as  the  new  ones.  In  giving  the 
names  of  the  letters,  it  is  well  to  keep  before  the  pupil's 
mind  that  while  the  name  of  the  letter  is  aitch  or  el  or  ef,  it 
says,  not  this  name  but  its  elementary  sound. 

Sounding  Words  and  Expressing  Thought.  —  When  sen- 
tence reading  has  l)cgun,  should  there  be  some  word  which 


Primary  Reading  259 

the  child  does  not  recognize,  he  must  be  made  to  feel  free 
to  make  this  fact  known.  He  should  be  helped  to  pro- 
nounce it  for  himself,  b}^  sounding  it  or  by  comparing  it 
with  some  known  word.  The  teacher  should  avoid  mere 
telling  whenever  possible,  and  it  is  nearly  always  possible 
if  the  child  is  thus  taught  from  the  beginning.  When  he 
has  made  sure  that  he  knows  all  the  words  and  has  the 
thought  in  his  own  mind  he  will  have  little  or  no  difficulty 
in  expressing  it  orally,  just  as  he  has  no  difficulty  in  ex- 
pressing a  thought  of  hia  own  because  he  knows  what  he 
wants  to  say  and  he  says  it.  Herein  lies  the  secret  of  good 
reading,  which  is  simply  saying  things  just  as  one  would 
talk  under  exactly  similar  conditions.  But,  if  the  ex- 
pression should  be  faulty,  a  little  skillful  or  suggestive 
questioning  will  usually  bring  the  desired  result.  If  this 
fails,  however,  as  may  occasionally  happen,  some  other 
child  can  almost  surely  give  the  sentence  with  the  expres- 
sion wished,  and  this  is  preferable  to  the  teacher's  giving 
it.  Sometimes  a  child's  interpretation  may  be  different 
from  the  teacher's  and  yet  be  allowable.  In  such  cases, 
the  final  rendition  must  depend  upon  what  seems  the 
most  reasonable  meaning  and  the  child  should  be  led 
to  see  this  by  his  judgment  and  reason  rather  than  by 
mere  imitation.  But  that  expressive  reading  is  desirable 
from  the  first  and  that  it  cannot  be  secured  until  the 
child  has  some  thought  which  he  wishes  to  express, 
are  facts  which  should  not  be  forgotten  by  the  teacher 
of  beginners. 

At  first,  this  may  seem  to  be  a  slow  method,  because 
the  teacher  must  wait  until  the  class  has  taken  in  a  whole 
sentence,  mentally,  before  a  word  is  spoken.  A  reason- 
able time  must  be  allowed  for  doing  this,  time  enough, 
at  least,  for  the  large  majority  of  the  class  to  get  it.  The 
pupils  should  not  be  made  to  feel  hurried,  though  they 


260  The  Rural  School 

should  be  encouraged  to  see  who  can  get  it  ready  first. 
Concentration  of  attention  and  interest  are  both  secured 
in  this  way,  for  every  child  is  intent  upon  his  own  work, 
which  is  one  and  the  same  for  all.  In  the  beginning  the 
sentences  must  be  quite  short  so  that  these  may  not  be 
too  much  for  the  mind  to  grasp  and  hold  at  once.  Gradu- 
ally, these  may  be  lengthened  and  made  more  difficult. 
Interest.  —  From  the  first  there  should  be  some  relation 
of  thought  between  the  various  sentences  of  a  lesson. 
The  idea  that  they  form  a  story  always  adds  interest  and 
makes  one  eager  to  know  what  is  coming  next.  Interest 
is  the  keynote  in  all  teaching.  If  one  has  gained  that, 
success,  in  some  measure  at  least,  is  certain,  while,  with- 
out it,  learning  is  forced  and  slow.  In  this  connection  it 
is  not  amiss  to  say,  that  there  will  be  no  class  interest  if 
the  teacher  is  not  interested.  The  new  matter  must  then 
be  made  alive  and  of  seeming  importance  if  it  is  to  make  a 
lasting  impression.  Introductory  talks  help  to  create 
this  importance.  That  the  sentences  may  be  as  inter- 
esting as  possible,  they  should  be  of  various  forms,  — 
statements,  questions,  exclamations  and  commands.  This 
will  make  them  more  conversational  and  give  opportunity 
for  variety  of  expression.  It  is  helpful,  at  all  times,  to 
make  use  of  the  period,  the  question  mark  and  the  ex- 
clamation point  as  keys  to  the  meaning  and  proper  ex- 
pression of  the  thought. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

Use  of  Cards.  —  One  quick  means  of  reviewing  all  old 
words  is  to  have  them  written  on  large  cards,  of  a  size, 
say,  3"  X  5  "  or  33^"  x  6  ".  These  are  held  before  the 
class  and  run  over  rapidly,  either  in  concert  or  individu- 
ally, as  desired.    All  words  may  be  named  by  one  pupil, 


Primary  Reading  261 

or  they  may  be  named  in  turn,  or  promiscuously,  as  the 
children's  names  are  called.  Sometimes  the  pupil  may 
be  allowed  to  hold  all  the  cards  he  names,  to  see  who  can 
get  the  most.  This  gives  much  drill  in  a  short  time  with 
little  labor.  It  is  also  a  means  of  keeping  a  complete  list 
of  all  words  where  blackboard  space  is  small.  The  in- 
ventive teacher  will  find  many  ways  of  giving  the  drills 
necessary  for  advancement  and  confidence  in  one's  own 
ability  while,  at  the  same  time,  avoiding  weariness. 

The  Transition  from  Script  to  Print.  —  The  beginning 
work  in  reading  should  be  blackboard  work,  largely, 
using  script  only.  If  one  has  a  script  chart,  that  may  be 
used;  but  no  chart  gives  the  amount  of  drill  work  that  is 
necessary.  This  can  be  obtained  only  by  the  use  of  the 
board.  The  printed  chart  should  not  be  used  in  the  first 
stages  because  the  form  of  the  printed  words  is  suffi- 
ciently different  to  cause  more  or  less  confusion.  The 
chart  is  good  for  review  and  drill  when  the  transition  is 
made  from  script  to  print.  Do  not  use  print  on  the  board 
until  ready  to  make  this  transition.  Its  use  then  is  prin- 
cipally for  the  sake  of  comparison  and  is  of  short  dura- 
tion. When  ready  to  make  the  change  from  script  to 
print,  which  is  preparatory  to  taking  up  the  first  book, 
choose  words  that  are  similar  in  the  print  and  the  script, 
as:  cap,  man,  little,  dog,  hop,  etc.  Introduce  the  subject 
by  some  such  explanation  as  the  following:  Miss  S.  does 
not  wear  the  same  waist  every  day,  but  she  is  still  Miss  S. 
Susie  sometimes  wears  a  red  dress,  but  we  still  call  her 
Susie.  Fred  had  on  a  white  blouse  yesterday,  but  to-day 
he  has  on  a  blue  blouse.  So,  children,  the  words  you  have 
learned  are  going  to  change  their  dresses  in  your  nice 
new  books.  Then  begin  with  some  such  words  as  those 
given  above.  At  first,  Avrite  both  forms,  and  later,  only 
the  printed  one. 


262  The  Rural  School 

The  ease  with  which  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  name  the 
first  words  will  cause  him  to  lose  any  fear  of  difficulty. 
Whenever  he  cannot  pronounce  the  printed  form  show 
him  the  written  word  for  comparison.  To  do  this  and  to 
teach  many  printed  words  quickly,  it  is  an  excellent  plan 
to  have  the  written  form  on  one  card  and  the  printed 
form  on  another  of  the  drill  cards  mentioned  above,  thus : 
man,  man.  First,  show  the  written  form,  then  the  printed 
form,  explaining  that  the  words  are  the  same.  Have 
pupils  name  both  forms.  After  considerable  drill  of  this 
sort,  the  printed  form  should  be  shown  first.  If  the  child 
does  not  recognize  it,  he  should  be  shown  the  written  form 
and  then  the  printed  form  again,  which  he  now  names. 
Resemblances  and  differences  should  be  noted. 

Danger  of  Using  the  Book  too  Soon.  —  A  very  common 
and  serious  error  made  by  teachers  is  that  of  giving  a  book 
too  soon.  This  is  generally  due,  no  doubt,  to  a  lack  of 
appropriate  seat  or  busy  work,  with  which  to  keep  the 
child  employed  when  he  is  not  actually  reciting.  The 
teacher  feels,  and  rightly,  that  the  child  must  be  occu- 
pied. Generally,  more  harm  than  good  is  done  by  such 
procedure,  for  the  child  has  not  sufficient  knowledge  really 
to  study  a  book  for  several  weeks  —  the  number  varying 
from  six  to  twelve,  according  to  the  age  of  pupils  and 
the  time  the  teacher  has  to  devote  to  this  work.  No 
primer  or  first  reader  can  give  the  required  amount  of 
drill  on  all  the  words  used  to  make  the  child  proficient 
in  this  recognition  and  use,  and,  if  he  is  held  to  the  book, 
without  a  great  deal  of  supplemental  work,  very  soon  he 
has  gotten  beyond  the  boundary  of  his  knowledge  into  a 
region  whose  objects  and  paths  are  all  unlmown  to  him. 
Sometimes  he  will  learn  the  stories  by  rote  but  cannot 
begin  to  pronounce  the  words  when  they  are  taken  pro- 
miscuously, or,  perhaps,  he  cannot  even  read  the  stories 


Primary  Reading  263 

without  the  aid  of  the  pictures.  Since  a  child  who  has 
been  given  his  book  too  soon  reads  it  but  poorly,  he  is 
of  necessity  obliged  to  "go  through  it "  —  he  does  not 
really  read  it  —  several  times. 

Supplementary  Readers.  — It  is  a  waste  of  precious  time 
to  read  the  primer  and,  at  least,  the  first  two  readers  of  a 
series  more  than  once.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean, 
however,  that  a  child  should  take  the  second  reader  as 
soon  as  he  has  read  one  first  reader.  It  would  be  far 
better,  as  a  rule,  to  read  at  least  two  sets  of  first  and 
second  readers  before  taking  the  next  higher  book  in  the 
regular  series.  These  supplementary  books  are  often  con- 
venient to  use  in  testing  the  child's  ability  to  read  at 
sight.  If  the  exercise  chosen  is  somewhat  simpler  than 
that  which  he  has  been  accustomed  to  read  after  study  and 
contains  but  feAV  new  or  difficult  words,  the  pupil  should 
be  able  to  read  it  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy 
and  fluency.  In  order  that  the  supplemental  books  do 
not  become  too  conunon,  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  for  the 
teacher  to  keep  them  on  her  desk  or  on  the  shelves,  except 
at  such  times  as  when  she  wishes  the  class  to  use  them  or 
when  she  allows  a  child  to  use  one  as  a  special  reward  or 
privilege.  Their  possession,  then,  becomes  an  honor,  and 
the  book  itself,  an  object  of  respect. 

Unless  a  book  is  very  well  graded,  and  sometimes  even 
in  such  cases,  it  is  frequently  advisable  to  take  the  lessons 
in  some  other  order  than  the  one  in  the  book.  This  may 
be  due  to  a  season,  a  holiday,  to  the  study  of  some  par- 
ticular author,  or  subject. 

Occasionally  a  part  of  each  recitation  should  be  used 
in  discussing  the  meaning  of  the  more  difficult  and  mi- 
usual  words  and  expressions,  that  these  may  become  a 
part  of  the  pupil's  actual  working  vocabulary  and  insure 
a  better  understanding  of  future  reading. 


264  The  Rural  School 

Synonyms  and  Meaning  of  Words.  —  An  interesting 
drill  at  times  is  the  finding  of  synonyms.  The  teacher  may 
help  by  giving  other  sentences  using  the  word  in  the  same 
sense,  then  asking  the  pupils  to  suggest  a  new  word  mean- 
ing the  same  thing.  This  work  may  begin  even  in  the 
primer  and  the  first-reader  classes  and  be  given  more  and 
more  attention  as  the  grade  advances.  Too  often  it  is 
taken  for  granted  that  a  child  knows  the  meaning  of  a 
word  because  it  is  small  or  because  he  has  no  difficulty 
in  pronouncing  it.  A  child  who  knows  his  phonics  and 
can  pronounce  hill  and  mill,  can  also  pronounce  rill,  but  it 
is  very  probable  that  he  may  not  know  that  it  means  a 
tiny  stream.  Likewise,  he  may  know  book  and  brook,  but 
since  in  some  sections  the  term  brook  is  not  commonly 
heard,  he  may  not  know  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

Reading  the  Lesson  to  the  Class. — Some  teachers  make 
the  mistake  of  reading  the  lesson  aloud  to  the  class,  before 
they  study  it,  as  a  part  of  the  assignment.  If  this  is  to 
be  read  by  the  teacher,  it  should  be  after  the  child  has 
done  his  best  with  it,  aided  by  the  teacher's  questions 
and  suggestions.  If  the  teacher  is  a  good  reader,  he  can 
do  a  great  deal  to  help  and  inspire  his  pupils,  by  reading 
much  that  is  good,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  bright,  interest- 
ing and  suited  to  his  hearers.  Many  things  of  this  sort 
will  bear  frequent  readings  and  will  be  liked  better  and  be 
of  more  value,  because  of  their  repetition  and  familiarity. 

Good  Literature.  —  Some  one  has  said  that  it  is  a  crime 
to  teach  a  child  to  read  and  not  teach  him  what  to  read 
or  not  teach  him  to  love  the  best  in  literature.  There  is 
so  much  that  is  good  and  within  the  comprehension  of 
little  children,  that  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  give  them  that 
which  caters  to  no  legitimate  need  in  their  natural  devel- 
opment or  that  which  is  trashy.  We  must  not  forget  that 
childhood  revels  in  fairy  tales  and  "  make  believe  "  and 


Primary  Reading  265 

the  youth  delights  in  the  tales  of  adventure,  of  prowess 
and  of  chivalry.  Each  has  a  right  to  have  his  desire  satis- 
fied. One  needs  to  choose  carefully,  to  be  sure  there  is 
some  element  of  ethical  good,  though  one  is  not  compelled 
to  lug  in  bodily  the  moral  of  each  one  and  label  it  as 
such.  It  is  sometimes  well  enough  to  let  the  moral  sug- 
gest itself  to  the  child's  mind,  even  though  it  is  not  always 
the  one  the  teacher  would  suggest. 

In  the  "  make  believe  "  age,  the  flowers,  the  trees,  the 
animals,  all  inanimate  things  must  be  made  to  live,  to 
act,  to  talk.  At  the  same  time  we  are  allowing  the  child 
to  develop  his  power  of  imagination,  it  is  often  advisable 
to  remind  him,  occasionally,  that  it  is  only  pretence  after 
all,  in  order  that  the  too  impressionable  child  shall  not 
really  come  to  believe,  as  true,  much  that  is  only  legend 
or  fable.  This  need  not,  hoAvever,  be  emphasized  to  the 
extent  of  deadening  vitality  or  destroying  interest,  for 
such  stories  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  obtaining 
that  much  desired  characteristic  of  good  reading,  animated 
and  natural  expression,  as  well  as  helping  to  create  and 
then  supply  a  natural  desire  in  this  stage  of  mental  de- 
velopment. "  Blessings  upon  him  who  first  invented 
books  "  and  then  upon  the  one  who  helps  others  to  appre- 
ciate them. 


Chapter  m 
LANGUAGE    WORK 

Importance  of  Subject.  — ■  A  subject  of  vital  importance 
in  any  school  course,  and  yet  one  more  often  neglected 
than  almost  any  other  at  the  time  when  the  utmost  care 
should  be  exercised,  is  that  of  language.  Language  is 
both  the  science  and  art  of  expressing  one's  self  accurately 
and  easily. 

Correct  Habits.  —  It  is  one  of  the  subjects  which  must 
be  acquired  b}^  practice  and  example  rather  than  by  rule. 
Or,  as  one  has  put  it,  it  is  one  that  is  "  caught  as  well  as 
taught."  One  may  be  versed  in  all  the  laws  of  the  subject, 
may  have  them  at  his  tongue's  end,  and  yet  display  the 
most  wonderful  ignorance  of  their  application  and  the 
greatest  skill  in  disregarding  and  breaking  them  in  his 
daily  conversation  and  use.  Bad  habits  of  speech  formed 
in  childhood  are  hard  to  overcome.  A  child  whose  asso- 
ciates use  good  language,  will  himself  form  correct  habits 
of  speech  by  imitation  without  the  aid  of  rules.  If  they 
talk  not  only  correctly  but  well,  he  is  quite  apt  to  do  the 
same.  Hence,  in  primary  language  work,  habits  and 
practice  are  worth  much;    rules,  but  little. 

Suggestions  and  Methods  of  Procedure.  —  Language 
is  of  two  kinds,  spoken  and  written.  Since  language  work 
has  to  do  so  largely  with  the  spoken  word,  the  thoughtful, 
careful  teacher  finds  no  lack  of  opportunity  to  teach 
language  even  though  his  program  is  ever  so  crowded, 
and  no  time  is  available  for  separate  daily  recitations. 

266 


Language  Work  267 

Almost  every  exercise  offers  many  and  varied  opportuni- 
ties for  teaching  this  subject.  In  schools  where  errors  in 
speech  are  habitual  and  constant,  correction  of  errors 
must  be  as  habitual  and  constant.  While  the  vigilance 
may  never  be  relaxed,  yet  the  work  must  be  done  kindly 
and  unobtrusively  as  a  matter  of  course.  If  the  child 
talking  freely  should  say,  "  When  I  come  to  school,"  or 
"  Tom  and  me,"  the  teacher  may  say  "  When  I  came  to 
school  "  or  "  Tom  and  I,"  and  the  pupil  corrects  himself 
and  goes  on  without  confusion  or  shame.  But  whether 
the  work  is  written  or  oral,  spasmodic  attacks  of  care  and 
exactness,  no  matter  how  energetically  carried  on,  can 
effect  much  less  than  the  quiet  continuous  efforts.  Also, 
when  the  application  of  one  principle  has  been  made, 
every  violation  of  that  principle  should  be  noticed  until 
its  improper  use  is  the  rare  exception  rather  than  the 
rule.  Mastery  is  indicated  by  the  correct  use  of  the  form 
without  conscious  effort. 

Language  has  to  do  not  only  with  the  ability  to  express 
one's  self,  but  also  with  the  additional  ability  to  express 
one's  self  well,  that  is,  freely,  easily,  comiectedly  and  in- 
terestingly. It  not  only  enables  a  person  to  have  some- 
thing to  say,  but  it  gives  him  the  power  to  say  it.  He  who 
has  suffered  from  the  feeling  that  he  cannot  say  what  he 
wishes,  or  from  the  equally  painful  one  that  he  has  abso- 
lutely nothing  to  say,  can  realize  what  it  is  worth  to  a 
child  or  a  man  to  have  something  to  say  and  to  have 
power  to  say  it. 

No  one  can  express  himself  who  has  nothing  to  express. 
In  this  thought  lies  many  a  hint  for  the  language  teacher. 
Not  the  least  element  of  her  work  is  to  see  that  the  pupil's 
mind  is  supplied  with  material  worthy  of  expression,  and 
when  this  is  done,  there  will  be  few  who  will  not  feel  a 
willingness,  even  an  eagerness  to  express  themselves.    The 


268  The  Rural  School 

expression  will  need  to  be  directed,  but  this  direction  will 
be  acceptable  and  valuable  now,  whereas,  without  the 
language  material,  it  would  have  been  meaningless. 

Language  work  must  necessarily  be  almost  entirely- 
oral  for  the  first  year,  and  largely  so  for  a  much  longer 
period;  the  amount  of  written  and  really  technical  work 
increasing  from  year  to  year  as  the  child  advances. 

The  work  may  and  should  begin  in  the  lower  grades  in 
connection  with  reading  lessons  and  in  conversation  about 
things  of  general  interest  to  the  pupil.  They  are  then 
apt  to  express  themselves  freely  and  are  unconscious  of 
any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  form  their  minds 
or  shape  their  expression.  A  child  must  talk,  before  the 
teacher  can  assist  greatly  in  forming  correct  speech  or 
aid  materially  in  facilitating  it. 

Language  may  be  taught  incidentally  in  connection 
with  all  school  subjects,  in  as  much  as  correct  language 
should  be  insisted  upon  at  all  times,  but  such  exercises 
should  not  and  cannot  take  the  place  of  definite  and 
distinct  language  work.  Because  the  mind  is  occupied 
with  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson  rather  than  with 
the  careful  expression  of  the  facts  as  an  end  in  itself,  ex- 
pression in  full,  complete  and  careful  statements  dis- 
closes one's  grasp  of  the  thought  of  the  lesson.  Under 
such  conditions,  if  one  is  called  upon  to  express  his  ideas, 
he  must  systematize  and  formulate  them  and  is  thus 
given  mental  exercise.  The  attempt  to  recite  under  such 
conditions  discloses  to  him  what  he  knows  clearly  and 
what  but  poorly.  Sometimes  we  think  we  know,  but  when 
we  attempt  to  express  our  thoughts,  we  discover  them  to 
be  hazy  and  disorganized. 

The  frequent  writing  of  a  paragraph  or  two  in  connec- 
tion with  the  various  lessons  is  a  good  practice,  serving 
the  double  purpose  of  a  short  test  and  a  language  lesson 


Language  Work  269 

as  well;  but  the  thought  should  be  emphasized  that  lan- 
guage work  as  language  work  should  be  given  a  place 
on  the  program. 

Too  often  this  work,  instead  of  keeping  the  language 
element  uppermost,  is  made  to  be  an  exercise  in  elemen- 
tary grammar.  This  is  especially  apt  to  be  true  in  the 
case  of  inexperienced  teachers,  for  the  reason  that  the 
technical  matter  is  easier  to  present.  It  does  not  require 
as  much  skill  or  originality  in  presenting  and  it  lends  itself 
to  being  memorized  in  a  parrot-like  way  by  the  pupils, 
thus  making  a  show  of  knowledge  whether  its  import  is 
well  understood  or  not. 

Some  of  the  technical  work  and  the  mechanics  of 
composition,  such  as  punctuation,  capitalization,  etc.,  are 
necessary  as  soon  as  the  written  work  is  begun.  But  the 
grammar  feature  should  not  be  allowed  to  predominate 
during  the  first  four  or  five  school  years.  The  business 
of  this  period  is  to  gather  ideas  and  thoughts,  material  to 
express,  and  marked  ability  to  express  it.  The  usual  lan- 
guage book  will  be  an  aid  to  the  teacher  but  should  not 
be  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil  before  the  fourth,  or  better, 
the  fifth  grade. 

ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR 

Some  of  the  topics  which  may  be  presented  orally  long 
before  it  would  be  advisable  to  study  a  language  book 
formally  are: 

1.  The  kinds  of  sentences,  as  to  meaning,  and  their 
punctuation. 

2.  Quotations  and  their  punctuation. 

3.  Possessives,  singular  and  plural. 

4.  Use  of  capitals  in  sentences,  proper  nouns,  poetry, 
quotations,  I  and  O. 

5.  Contractions. 


270  The  Rural  School 

All  of  these  may  be  studied  as  their  use  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  the  reading  lessons.  After  that  they  may  be 
reviewed  frequently  or  noticed  as  they  appear  again  and 
again  in  the  various  lessons.  A  very  limited  study  may 
be  given  to  some  of  the  parts  of  speech;  as  the  noun,  pro- 
noun, verb  and  adjective,  but  the  following  should  receive 
more  careful  attention;  viz.,  a  and  an;  this,  that,  these, 
those;  is,  was,  were;  has  and  have;  lie,  lay;  sit,  set;  rise, 
raise;    teach  and  learn. 

Pupils  should  not  be  given  formal  rules  and  definitions 
and  asked  to  learn  them.  Instead,  the  rules  or  defini- 
tions should  be  developed  in  the  class  and  the  pupil  led 
to  formulate  them  from  what  he  has  actually  seen  or  done. 

For  example,  suppose  it  is  desired  to  develop  the  rule 
that,  "  Most  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  adding  '  s  '  to 
the  singular  form,"  or  that  "  Nouns  ending  in  s,  sh,  ch, 
X  or  z  make  their  plurals  by  adding  '  es  '  to  the  singular 
form."  For  the  first  rule  present  a  long  list  of  nouns  or 
write  the  list  as  the  pupils  give  the  nouns.  Then  ask 
them  to  give  the  corresponding  word  meaning  more 
than  one.  Note  how  many  of  the  words  add  "  s  " 
merely.  Compare  this  number  with  the  number  that 
make  their  plural  in  some  other  way.  What  is  the 
comparative  number?  Make  other  lists,  have  pupils 
make  long  lists,  and  compare  as  before.  What  may 
we  say  about  most  nouns?  "  Most  nouns  make  their 
plural  by  adding  '  s  '  to  the  singular." 

To  develop  the  "  es  "  rule,  one  might  choose  from  the 
list  already  made  those  words  whose  plural  is  made  by 
adding  "  es  "  to  the  singular;  or  a  list  of  such  words 
might  be  placed  on  the  board  by  the  teacher.  Pupils 
should  then  give  the  plurals,  spelling  each  one  and  tell- 
ing what  is  added.  Following  are  a  few  suggestions  for 
such  an  exercise. 


Language  Work  271 

dress  plus  es  equals  dresses 


class 

es 

classes 

dish 

es 

dishes 

church 

es 

churches 

watch 

es 

watches 

bench 

es 

benches 

box 

es 

boxes 

fez 

es 

fezes 

topaz 

es 

topazes 

tax 

es 

taxes 

wish 

es 

wishes 

With  what  sound  did  the  first  word  end?  With  "  s." 
The  word  dishf  The  next  word,  and  the  next,  etc.?  With 
what  other  sounds  than  s,  sh,  ch,  x  or  z  did  any  of  the 
words  in  the  list  end?  Examination  shows  none;  deduce 
from  this  illustration  that,  "  Nouns  ending  in  s,  sh,  ch, 
X  or  z  make  their  plural  form  by  adding  ''  es  "  to  their 
singular.  {Ox  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.)  In  like  man- 
ner we  can  develop  the  rules  for  other  plurals,  for  the  use 
of  a,  and  an,  this,  that,  is,  are,  etc.  That  which  the  child 
helps  to  develop  and  formulate  has  more  meaning  to  him 
than  that  which  he  simply  learns  to  repeat  mechanically 
and  of  which  he  makes  no  practical  application.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  learn  many  rules,  but  such  as  are  learned 
should  be  definite  and  exact  and  should  be  developed 
carefully  before  they  are  memorized. 

Discussions  sometimes  grow  long  over  such  questions 
as,  "  Shall  we  say  noun  or  name  word,  verb  or  action  word, 
or  asking  or  interrogative  sentence?  "  There  seems  to 
be  a  golden  mean  between  these  two  extremes.  In  gen- 
eral, use  the  technical  term  from  the  beginning  if  its  mean- 
ing is  understood  by  the  child,  otherwise  use  a  simpler 
term.  For  instance,  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  action 
word  "  is  easier  for  the  child  to  comprehend  than  the 
word  "  verb,"  but  we  must  make  sure  that  only  "  action 


272  The  Rural  School 

words  "  are  included  under  the  term.  In  like  manner, 
the  term  "  asking  sentence  "  has  more  meaning  than 
interrogative  sentence.  Consequently  one  must  exercise 
his  judgment  and  present  such  matters  in  the  way  best 
suited  to  the  needs  of  his  pupils. 

LANGUAGE  PROPER 

There  is  no  end  to  the  material  that  may  be  used  for 
this  work.  It  naturally  divides  itself  into  several  groups 
or  classes  of  exercises:  observational  work,  picture  sto- 
ries, letters  and  other  original  compositions,  paraphra- 
sing, reproduction  and  dictation  exercises.  Variety  is 
good  but  one  should  avoid  scattering  efforts. 

Whichever  plan  is  followed,  the  same  line  of  work  can 
be  pursued  through  the  first  four  grades  simply  by  de- 
manding more  work  and  greater  excellence  from  the 
classes  as  they  advance. 

As  was  said  before,  the  work  of  the  first  grade  must 
consist  almost  entirely  of  oral  exercises,  conversational  in 
character.  A  few  simple  sentences  and  an  occasional 
paragraph,  which  have  been  first  written  on  the  board, 
and  noted  with  respect  to  capitalization  and  punctuation, 
are  about  all  the  written  work  that  can  with  reason  be 
expected  from  this  grade.  The  second  grade  can  do  this 
and  more.  They  command  a  larger  vocabulary  both  in 
speech  and  in  ability  to  spell,  and  may  occasionally  be 
expected  to  write  an  entire  little  story.  They  should  be 
able  to  see,  to  think  and  to  reason  more  clearly  and 
deeply  than  first-grade  pupils. 

Observational  Work.  —  The  conversational  and  obser- 
vational period  gives  much  opportunity  for  nature  study 
and  there  is  endless  material  from  which  to  choose.  This 
should  be  as  seasonable  and  appropriate  as  possible. 


Language  Work  273 

In  the  fall  there  may  be  study  of  some  of  the  autumn 
flowers;  the  sunflower,  the  aster,  the  goldenrod;  of  the 
autumn  leaves  and  the  preparation  of  plants,  animals 
and  insects  for  winter.  A  little  later  some  time  may  be 
spent  in  studying  the  familiar  forms  of  moisture;  such  as, 
rain,  mist,  fog,  dew,  hail,  sleet,  frost  and  snow.  Compare 
rain  and  hail,  frost  and  snow,  mist  and  sleet,  dew  and 
frost,  fog  and  clouds,  etc.  We  may  call  this  work  geog- 
raphy, nature  work  or  what  we  please  when  it  is  pre- 
sented, but  in  its  final  expression  it  is  language  work. 

Another  interesting  topic  for  rural  children  is  the  study 
of  birds.  Pupils  will  be  interested  in  observing  their 
habits  of  migration,  and  many  of  their  prominent  charac- 
teristics; such  as  bills,  bodies  and  feet  of  swimmers;  legs 
and  necks  of  waders;   feet  and  bills  of  scratchers. 

Thanksgiving  time  gives  a  chance  to  correlate  language 
and  history  in  the  story  of  the  Pilgrims  and  early  life  in 
the  colonies.  Christmas  has  its  story,  a  many-sided  one 
if  we  choose  to  make  it  so;  and  it  affords  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  present  some  of  the  Madonnas.  Though  the 
little  people  need  not  be  expected  to  analyze  them  crit- 
ically, if  they  feel  something  of  their  meaning,  that  is 
sufficient.  The  feeling  will  probably  reveal  itself  in 
speech. 

Springtime  brings  more  material  than  one  can  pos- 
sibly use;  seeds,  their  germination  and  modes  of  growth, 
signs  of  returning  life  in  plants  and  all  nature,  resem- 
blances and  differences  in  flowers  and  fruit  blossoms.  It 
will  be  profitable  to  give  some  study  to  some  of  the  more 
common  botanical  families,  such  as  the  rose  family,  to 
which  most  of  our  fruits  belong,  and  the  lily  family,  which 
is  also  very  large.  It  is  easily  seen  that  from  the  nature 
side  alone  there  is  a  limitless  field  upon  which  to  draw 
for  material. 


274  The  Rural  School 

Pictures.  —  Pictures  are  both  interesting  and  helpful  in 
language  work.  The  power  acquired  in  seeing  things  in 
the  observational  work  is  here  put  to  another  and  further 
test.  In  the  first  exercise  in  which  pictures  are  used  there 
should  not  be  too  many  details  and  the  subject  should 
be  such  as  has  meaning  for  the  child  mind  and  is  pleasing 
to  it.  Pictures  of  children,  their  pets,  their  sports,  and 
their  work  are  good  subjects.  They  should  first  be  taught 
to  see  and  express  the  large,  distinguishing  features.  If 
a  child  says,  "  I  have  a  picture  of  a  little  girl  and  her 
dog,"  it  does  not  mean  anything  in  particular;  but,  if 
she  says,  "  I  have  a  picture  of  a  little  girl  teaching  her 
dog  to  sit  up  in  a  chair  and  hold  a  stick  on  his  nose,"  or, 
"  In  this  picture  there  is  a  little  girl  lying  fast  asleep  on 
the  ground  under  a  big  tree  with  a  big  shaggy  dog  watch- 
ing over  her,"  we  do  not  need  to  have  the  picture  before 
us,  because  the  mental  eye  can  see  the  essential  features 
unaided  by  the  physical  eye. 

After  the  picture  is  generalized  in  this  manner,  the 
attention  should  be  centered  upon  the  lesser  details  in 
the  order  of  their  importance.  Care  should  be  exercised 
to  see  that  the  treatment  is  not  given  in  a  hit  and  miss 
manner.  That  is,  when  one  has  started  in  to  describe 
the  dress  and  appearance  of  the  little  girl  in  the  above 
picture,  he  should  not  break  off  and  give  something  about 
the  dog  and  then  return  for  some  added  information  about 
the  little  girl.  This  is  a  most  common  fault  in  the  work 
of  beginners.  They  seem  to  find  it  difficult  to  hold  the 
mind  to  a  logical  order  until  much  practice  has  fixed  it 
as  a  custom.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  work  of  para- 
graphing, for  a  paragraph  is  only  a  group  of  related 
sentences. 

Another  error  to  be  guarded  against  is  that  of  connect- 
ing entirely  unrelated  things  by  and.     A  question  or  a 


Language  Work  275 

suggestion  will  be  sufficient  to  show  that,  since  there  is 
no  relation  in  thought,  there  should  be  none  in  written 
expression.  The  other  extreme  is  the  use  of  too  many 
short  sentences,  the  monotonous  repetition  of  the  same 
form,  as:  "I  see,"  "  I  see,"  "  The  girl  is,"  "  The  girl  has," 
etc.  B}^  questions  or  suggestions  the  teacher  needs  to 
show  that  the  same  thought  may  be  said  in  many  differ- 
ent waj's.  He  needs  to  show  also  hoAV  a  few  details  will 
enliven  the  otherwise  commonplace  and  uninteresting 
story.  Try  to  make  the  child  see  that  he  is  to  tell  his 
story  in  a  way  entirely  different  from  that  in  which  any 
one  else  will  tell  if.  Illustration:  An}^  one  can  say,  "  The 
boy  has  a  pair  of  new  skates,"  but  not  every  one  would 
say,  "  The  boy's  skates,  which  seem  to  be  bright  and  new, 
are  hung  across  his  shoulder  by  a  long  strap."  Or  it  is 
perfectly  correct  to  say,  "  The  little  girl  has  curly  hair," 
but  it  is  far  more  interesting  to  say,  "  The  wind  has  blown 
one  of  the  little  girl's  curls  across  her  plump  cheek." 

In  all  original  sentence  work,  if  the  teacher  will  em- 
phasize the  thought  that  each  sentence  should  express 
an  idea  in  the  writer's  own  peculiar  way,  different  from 
the  way  any  one  else  would  express  it,  he  wall  accomplish 
many  beneficial  results  in  the  field  of  story  writing. 

In  picture  work  as  well  as  in  other  composition  exer- 
cises, careful  distinction  should  be  made  between  descrip- 
tion and  imaginative  writing.  Usually  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  distinguish  them  by  pointing  out  that  the  de- 
scription tells  what  is  actually  seen  or  known,  while  in  a 
story  there  is  much  "  make  believe."  One  writes  what 
the  picture  makes  him  think  might  or  would  happen.  It 
will  be  found  that  there  is  a  decided  tendency  to  mix  the 
present  and  past  forms,  but  this  can  usually  be  corrected 
before  pupils  reach  the  fifth  grade. 

Pictures  to  be  used  for  imaginative  work  should  be 


276  The  Rural  School 

such  as  are  really  suggestive,  and  then  the  mind  should 
confine  itself  within  reasonable  limits  and  not  imagine 
too  much  that  the  picture  does  not  warrant.  The  mind 
may  be  directed  into  the  proper  channel  by  questions,  and 
stiffness  and  bareness  be  avoided,  by  such  suggestive 
questions  as  the  following:  "  What  did  he  have  in  the 
basket?  " ,  "  What  did  he  do  with  it?  ",  "  What  did  she 
say?  ",  "  What  did  he  answer?  ",  etc. 

It  is  necessary  to  criticise  written  work  and  to  note 
where  improvement  can  be  made;  but  it  is  as  helpful  and 
encouraging  to  call  attention  to  any  good  sentences  and 
paragraphs.  This  is  helpful  to  the  less  skillful  by  showing 
them  what  is  desirable. 

Letter  Writing.  —  Letter  writing  is  an  important  part 
of  language  work.  The  greater  part  of  a  person's  written 
work  after  k^aving  school  is  in  this  fine.  If  one  stops  to 
think  about  it,  he  knows  that  the  writing  of  friendship 
letters  is  an  accomplishment  of  no  mean  sort,  or  art  if 
you  please,  and  that  there  are  comparatively  few  artists. 
This  is  unfortunate,  for  next  in  importance  to  seeing  and 
talking  with  our  friends  comes  our  correspondence  with 
them.  Who  does  not  like  to  get  a  letter?  But  cannot 
every  one  recall  with  what  little  enthusiasm  he  has  opened 
some  letters  and  again  how  eagerly  he  has  opened  others? 
How  anxious  he  has  been  to  learn  what  the  writer  has  to 
say,  to  say,  for  a  letter  is  only  a  one-sided  conversation 
with  the  pen,  instead  of  the  tongue. 

The  contents  of  the  first  letter  mentioned  above,  if  it 
be  from  a  regular  correspondent,  can  very  nearly  be  told 
without  reading.  It  is  a  series  of  stereotyped  phrases 
about  the  weather  and  other  items  of  equal  interest, 
well  intended  but  without  character  or  special  meaning. 
The  second  letter  is  filled  with  bright  little  things  on 
commonplace  subjects,  perhaps  —  even  health  and  the 


Language  Work  277 

weather  as  before,  but  they  are  said  in  a  way  they  have 
never  been  said  before  and  may  never  be  said  again. 

The  following  will  illustrate  the  two  styles:  One  per- 
son will  say,  "  I  got  up  before  sunrise  this  morning  but 
the  birds  were  singing  gayly  even  then."  The  second 
person  conveys  the  same  thought  in  somewhat  this  style: 
"  The  sun  has  not  shone  for  several  days  and,  thinking 
that  perhaps  Mr.  Sun  might  be  displeased  with  the  seem- 
ing lack  of  welcome  in  this  lie-a-bed-in-the-morning  com- 
munity, I  determined  last  night  to  give  him  a  surprise, 
if  he  would  but  show  his  shining  morning  face  to-day,  so 
I  arose,  not  bright  and  early,  but  just  early.  But  the  birds 
were  earlier  than  I,  and  how  they  did  sing.  One  bird  near 
the  house  sang  as  though  he  were  so  full  of  music  that  he 
would  certainly  burst,  if  he  did  not  discharge  some  of  it 
from  his  beautiful  little  music  box  at  once.  It  poured 
out  so  fast  that  I  feared  he  would  choke  on  some  of  the 
longer  notes.  One  almost  imagined  he  had  been  given  a 
certain  number  of  exercises  to  sing  before  he  could  have 
any  breakfast  and  that  he  was  so  very,  very  hungry.  At 
the  same  time  he  sang  exultantly  as  though  he  had  just 
heard  that  the  last  cat  in  the  world  had  but  recently  been 
hung  and  the  last  bo}^  with  a  sling  shot  had  been  banished 
from  bird  land  for  ever. 

"  But  enough  about  birds,  except  to  say  it  would  be 
well  worth  one's  time  to  rise  before  sunrise  ever}^  morn- 
ing, if  he  could  hear  such  a  concert  as  I  heard  this  morn- 
ing at  so  little  expense  —  tickets :  a  few  seeds,  bugs,  worms 
and  berries,  some  water  and  a  shady  safe  place  for  a  nest. 
If  you  do  not  know  what  I  mean,  try  the  experiment  and 
learn.    It  has  made  me  feel  like  organizing  a  sunrise  club." 

There  is  no  particular  merit,  except  that  of  original- 
ity, in  this  extract,  but  it  illustrates  the  point  in  ques- 
tion; one  has  told  a  common  thing  in  an  uncommon  way. 


278  The  Rural  School 

Not  every  one  is  full  of  fancies,  but  if  he  is  drilled  care- 
fully in  telling  of  every-day  experiences  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  one  need  not  always  be  painfully  commonplace. 
Letter  writing  is  a  good  form  of  composition  for  this  kind 
of  work.  One  writes  about  those  things  in  which  he  is 
interested  and  to  those  who  will  be  interested  in  the 
same  things. 

This  is  a  point  worthy  of  consideration  in  all  composi- 
tion work,  and  especially  in  the  lower  grades.  Write 
about  things  in  which  there  is  interest  if  possible,  but 
certainly  write  about  sojnething  about  which  we  have  or 
can  obtain  some  information,  rather  than  about  some  ab- 
straction, like  "  Cheerfulness  "  in  which  there  is  no  cheer, 
or  "  Courage  "  which  is  performed  with  fear  and  trem- 
bling. There  should  be  vital  contact  between  experience 
and  expression. 

Some  of  the  topics  which  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of 
school  letters  are  telUng  of  one's  school  work,  subjects  he 
likes  best  and  why;  describing  a  school  game;  telling 
about  a  special  program,  picnic  or  excursion;  relating 
some  story  read;  description  of  schoolroom;  our  Christ- 
mas tree;  what  I  want  to  do  or  what  I  did  during  vaca- 
tion; a  walk,  a  trip  to  town;  how  I  raised  corn  for  the 
fair;  my  trip  to  the  corn-judging  contest;  etc.,  etc. 

While  the  body  of  the  letter  gives  opportunity  for  the 
cultivation  of  expression,  it  also  affords  a  field  for  study 
of  the  character  of  the  writer.  The  letter  is  the  most 
personal  of  all  forms  of  composition  and  the  young  writer 
rather  unconsciously  puts  himself  into  his  letters  and  thus 
reveals  his  true  self  and  gives  the  teacher  a  hint  that 
may  be  of  future  value. 

Letter  writing  is  a  good  exercise  in  another  respect  in 
that,  while  there  is  great  latitude  as  to  body,  or  content, 
there  is  the  greatest  formality  in  other  matters.     Strict 


Language  Work  279 

regulations  govern  form  and  position  of  heading,  address, 
salutation  and  superscription.  Care  should  be  exercised 
in  teaching  these,  and  frequent  repetitions  are  necessary 
to  fix  them  firmly  in  the  mmd.  The  things  to  be  observed 
are  few  and  simple,  but  exactness  in  this  respect  is  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule. 

After  there  has  been  much  drill  on  the  ordinary  or 
friendship  letter,  the  more  advanced  grades  may  give 
some  attention  to  business  forms,  invitations  and  replies, 
both  formal  and  informal. 

Reproduction  Stories.  —  A  reproduction  story  is  one  m 
which  the  form  and  substance  are  retained,  but  the  exact 
wording  is  not  followed. 

Stories  for  reproduction  should  be  such  as  are  worthy 
of  a  place  in  the  memory.  They  may  be  little  myths, 
fables,  stories  of  ethical  value,  with  the  moral  not  too 
evident,  fairy  stories  and  stories  of  people  and  thmgs. 
As  in  descriptions  and  imaginative  stories,  the  reproduc- 
tion of  these  stories  must  be  oral  at  first.  Later  they  may 
be  written. 

The  repetition  of  some  of  these  stories  may  be  a  pleasmg 
feature  of  the  morning  exercises.  This  offers  an  oppor- 
tunity for  their  frequent  repetition,  so  all  may  become 
familiar  with  them,  and  for  many  pupils  to  tell  the  same 
story  without  becoming  weary  of  it.  At  first,  it  is  quite 
likely  that  only  the  bare  outhnes  will  be  given.  This  is 
better  than  nothing  as  a  beginning,  but  one  should  not 
be  satisfied  with  this  long,  for  such  work  will  develop 
little  skill  in  the  use  of  language.  One  of  the  objects  of 
the  reproduction  story  is  to  supply  good  material  for  m- 
crease  of  vocabulary  as  well  as  to  cultivate  attention  and 
memory.  The  repetition  of  the  actual  words  of  the  story 
will  accustom  the  pupil  to  one  use  of  these  words.  As 
far  as  possible,  the  meaning  should  be  made  evident,  as 


280  The  Rural  School 

by  this  means  many  of  the  unusual  words  and  expressions 
will  gradually  become  a  part  of  the  child's  own  language 
stock  in  trade. 

It  is  well  for  teachers  to  recognize  that  many  of  the 
expressions  are  figurative,  and  though  full  of  meaning  to 
the  understanding  mind,  may  be  vague  and  confusing  to 
the  child.  Care  in  this  respect  would  cause  fewer  chil- 
dren to  wonder  why  the  boy  "  laughed  in  his  sleeve,"  or 
how  a  horse  could  "  eat  his  head  off."  Though  it  is  better 
some  misunderstandings  than  no  understandings,  yet  chil- 
dren are  capable  of  comprehending  more,  if  rightly  pre- 
sented, than  many  people  suppose. 

Paraphrasing.  —  Paraphrasing  may  be  considered  as  one 
form  of  reproduction  work.  It  is  a  helpful  exercise  and 
its  advantages  are  two.  First,  it  requires  careful  inquiry 
into  the  meaning  of  the  selection  to  be  changed;  and  then 
it  requires  a  re-expression  of  the  meaning  in  pupils'  own 
words.  Paraphrasing  bears  some  relation  to  translating 
from  a  foreign  tongue  into  one's  own.  In  an  effort  to 
translate  the  author's  language  it  becomes  a  part  of  the 
translator's.  The  explanation  of  proverbs,  maxims,  etc., 
is  a  related  exercise  and  is  excellent  to  develop  a  pupil's 
power  of  expression  and  as  a  test  of  his  understanding 
of  figurative  speech. 

Dictation  Exercises.  —  Dictation  exercises  are  a  good 
means  of  testing  how  readily  a  child  can  apply  the  knowl- 
edge he  has  gained.  Short  sentences  and  brief  exercises 
may  be  given  which  will  contain  a  vast  amount  of  the 
mechanics  of  writing,  such  as:  punctuation,  capitaliza- 
tion, possessives,  quotations,  contractions,  abbreviations, 
margins,  indentations  of  paragraphs,  etc.  Dictation  ex- 
ercises should  be  corrected,  at  least  have  the  errors  in- 
dicated and  returned  to  the  writer  for  correction  and  re- 
writing.    They  are  of  no  particular  value  to  the  child 


Language  Work  281 

unless  this  is  done.  As  constant  repetition  of  the  act  of 
walking  at  last  produces  an  almost  automatic  action,  so 
long-continued,  painstaking,  and  well-directed  practice 
in  the  art  of  writing  and  speaking  will  bring  about  a  de- 
gree of  excellence  and  facility  in  these  lines  which  other- 
wise could  not  be  expected.  A  child,  to  derive  much 
benefit  from  dictation  exercises,  must  have  its  errors 
indicated  and  the  correct  forms  emphasized  and  im- 
pressed upon  his  mind  by  being  required  to  rewrite  the 
exercise  correctly.  In  fact,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  collect 
most  of  the  Avritten  work.  If  it  is  thought  the  work  is 
to  be  inspected,  better  work  will  be  accomplished  than 
otherwise  would  be.  Often  it  pleases  and  encourages  the 
children,  if  the  best  productions  are  preserved  and  ex- 
hibited on  the  wall  or  reading  table.  It  makes  the  work 
seem  of  more  value  and  consequence.  This  is  true  in 
other  work  besides  language. 

Lastly,  if  the  teacher  can  create  the  idea  that  story 
telling  and  story  writing  is  a  great  privilege  and  "  lots  of 
fun,"  he  will  simplify  language  work  wonderfully.  Chil- 
dren ought  to,  and  do  like  to  express  themselves,  when 
they  have  been  helped  as  to  what  and  how.  They  should 
be  glad,  rather  than  displeased,  at  the  thought  of  a  com- 
position; and  they  will  be,  under  the  inspiration  of  a  good 
language  teacher. 


Chapter  IV 
BUSY    WORK,    WHAT    AND    HOW 

That  mischief  for  idle  hands  to  do  will  be  found,  is  no- 
where truer  than  in  the  schoolroom.  Much  of  the  dislike 
entertained  by  many  little  people  for  school  is  directly 
traceable  to  the  dreadful  monotony  and  dreary  round  of 
day  after  day  with  little  else  to  do  except  to  swing  the 
feet  and  long  for  the  home-going  hour  to  come  if  one  is 
disposed  to  be  good,  or  to  make  things  lively  for  the 
teacher  and  school  if  one  is  wide-awake  and  averse  to 
losing  any  time. 

As  was  said  in  a  former  chapter,  the  little  people  five 
or  six  years  old,  as  the  case  may  be,  when  they  start  in 
the  rural  school,  cannot  and  should  not  l^e  expected  to 
"  study  "  in  the  usual  acceptance  of  the  word.  Too  often 
this  is  expected  and  they  are  given  a  book.  About  the 
only  result  is,  that  the  charm  of  the  book  is  worn  off 
before  the  child  is  able  to  use  it  to  any  advantage,  and 
when  he  might  use  it  he  does  not  enjoy  it  because  there 
is  nothing  new.  Possibly  he  knows  the  stories,  even 
though  he  cannot  read  them;  and  some  of  them  at  least 
he  has  droned  over  till  no  interest  or  life  remains  in  them. 
Board  work  and  busy  work  should  fill  the  first  two  or 
three  months  of  school  life,  and  fill  it  so  full  that  there  is 
no  need  of  a  book  to  occupy  the  time. 

Object  of  "  Busy  Work."  —  This  is  a  much  a])used  term. 
Too  often  it  is  thought  of  as  merely  something  to  consume 

282 


Busy  Work,  What  and  How  283 

the  time  of  the  Httle  people  so  that  they  may  not  be  idle 
or  have  time  for  mischief.  Were  there  no  other  purpose, 
this  would  be  better  than  that  they  should  learn  habits  of 
idleness  only,  but  this  is  not  the  purpose  of  real  busy  work. 
Busy  work  in  its  true  sense  is  real  work.  It  is  a  manifes- 
tation of  mind  through  matter  before  it  can  manifest  itself 
abstractly.  Its  aim  and  object  is  to  emphasize  and  drill 
upon  instruction  previously  given  or  to  prepare  the  way 
for  that  which  is  to  follow.  The  child  is  not  able  to  read 
or  write,  but  he  is  able  to  think  and  to  execute  some  of 
his  thoughts  by  means  of  his  hands  and  materials.  If 
he  is  allowed  thus  to  express  himself,  his  school  hours, 
which  otherwise  might  be  worse  than  wasted,  may  be 
happily  and  profitably  spent  and  he  may  be  gaining 
ability  to  express  himself  in  other  ways  —  may  be  laying 
the  foundation  for  future  building. 

Even  the  child  who  can  study  is  given  new  interest  in 
his  work,  and  will  often  gladly  do  tasks,  such  as  making 
the  combinations  of  twelve,  or  writing  numbers  in  the 
Roman  notation,  if  he  is  permitted  to  do  so  by  using  a 
number  box,  or  cardboard  forms,  or  colored  toothpicks, 
or  peg  board,  because  it  is  a  change  and  a  rest  from  the 
usual  work.  We  must  not  forget  the  truth  that  "  variety 
is  the  spice  of  life,"  and  that  children  especially  require 
frequent  changes  of  occupation. 

Many  teachers  fail  to  supply  themselves  with  sufficient 
and  suitable  busy  work  because  they  think  they  camiot 
afford  to  purchase  such  material.  Even  were  it  necessary 
to  buy  the  material  at  a  considerable  expense,  it  would  be 
economy  in  the  end.  Much  can  be  purchased  at  fairly 
reasonable  prices,  but  much  if  not  quite  all  of  the  more 
common  and  most  essential  supplies  can  be  made  by  any- 
one willing  to  give  to  the  matter  some  time,  thought 
and  labor. 


284  The  Rural  School 

BUSY    WORK    FOR    YOUNGER    PUPILS 

Number  Work  and  Material.  ■ —  In  number  work  a  child 
must  learn  to  recognize  numbers  and  figures.  Often  he 
can  count  to  five  or  ten  or  farther  when  he  enters  the 
school,  but  this  does  not  imply  that  he  knows  numbers. 
A  slight  examination  usually  discloses  the  fact  that  num- 
bers are  not  known  beyond  three  or  four,  or  possibly  five. 
After  instruction  in  these  matters  is  given  in  class,  the 
necessary  drill  to  fix  it  firmly  may  be  given  in  a  great 
many  forms  by  means  of  busy  work.  Colored  cardboard 
forms  —  squares,  triangles,  circles,  etc.,  toothpicks,  pegs, 
corn,  etc.,  may  be  used.  The  cardboard  can  be  obtained 
in  sheets  at  a  printing  office  and  cut  as  desired.  The 
toothpicks,  the  ordinary  cheap  kind,  can  be  purchased 
in  large-sized  boxes  for  five  cents  and  colored  with  Easter- 
egg  dyes.  These  dyes  can  be  had  in  eight  colors  for  five 
cents.    One  package  will  color  a  great  quantity. 

Ask  the  pupil  to  place  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  objects  on 
his  desk,  using  any  of  the  above-named  materials.  For 
example : 

D      DD      nan 

A        AA        AAA 


Wooden  beads,  colored  or  plain,  may  be  strung  to  illus- 
trate the  same  numbers.  When  colored  materials  are 
employed  it  is  well  to  use  but  one  color  for  a  single  num- 
ber, but  different  colors  may  be  used  for  the  different 


Busy  Work,  What  and  How  285 

numbers.  The  wooden  beads,  which  may  be  purchased 
at  ahnost  any  book  store,  come  in  the  six  standard  colors, 
about  sixty  in  a  box,  in  three  forms,  spheres,  cubes  and 
cylinders.  These  may  be  strung  on  shoe  strings,  which 
are  easily  handled.  The  colors  make  the  necessary 
divisions  into  groups.  If  smaller  beads  of  one  color  are 
used,  they  are  strung  with  coarse  needle  and  thread,  and 
little  perforated  cardboard  forms  are  used  to  separate 
into  groups.  These  little  forms  are  placed  in  the  boxes 
with  the  beads,  so  are  always  ready. 

Many  rural  teachers  can  supply  themselves  with  pretty 
red  beads  without  cost  by  gathering  wild  rose  hips  — 
buds,  as  they  are  sometimes  erroneously  called.  These 
hips  may  also  be  strung  on  wires,  about  twelve  on 
each,  and  used  as  individual  numeral  frames. 

[}0<XXXXXK>CKX>0|] 

Other  beads  may  be  made  by  cutting  small  cane  or  sor- 
ghum stalks  in  quarter-inch  or  half-inch  lengths  and  per- 
forating them  with  a  large  darning  needle  or  wire  so  that 
they  may  be  strung  easily. 

If  one  does  not  wish  to  purchase  peg  boards,  which  cost 
from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  each,  he  may  make  them  by 
taking  a  flat,  smooth  board  about  seven  inches  square, 
ruling  it  off  into  half-inch  squares  and  making  a  hole  at 
each  intersection  with  a  round  or  wire  nail.  The  pegs 
themselves  are  very  cheap  and  come  in  the  six  standard 
colors.  The  round  ones  are  best  for  the  peg  boards,  but 
the  square  ones  are  best  for  all  general  purposes. 

All  grades,  even  up  to  the  fifth,  will  think  it  great  fun 
—  no  work  at  all  —  to  make  the  Roman  numerals  with 
colored  toothpicks  or  pegs,  while  to  write  them  is  some- 


286  The  Rural  School 

times  a  task.     All  numbers  up  to  ninety  can  be  made 
easily,  and  even  C  and  D  are  not  too  hard. 

I  VI XIV  Lll  CD  MM 

The  forms  shown  represent  all  necessary  characters. 

All  the  materials  already  mentioned  can  also  be  used 
to  make  combinations  of  numbers,  large  or  small.  For 
example,  toothpicks,  using  different  colors  to  represent 
different  numbers,  may  be  used  thus:  ||  (red),  1||  (blue), 
mil  (yellow),  etc.;  read,  2  +  3=  5.  Pegs  of  one  color 
may  be  used  entirely  to  make,  || -f-  |||  =  |llll,  signs  and 
all.  Corn  —  red,  white,  and  yellow  —  can  also  be  used. 
Lightweight  cardboard  or  heavy  paper  forms  may  serve 
the  same  purpose.  The  forms  are  used  to  represent  the 
numbers,  and  narrow  strips  and  small  squares  to  make  the 
signs. 

nn*nnn^nnnnn 

AAAAA==AA^AAA 

OOOOvOO^OO 

OO^OO^OOOO 

For  a  lesson  in  form  and  color,  as  well  as  in  numbers, 
the  above  work  may  be  written  on  the  board  with  colored 
crayon  ^  and  the  pupils  required  to  reproduce  it  in  the 

^  A  few  sticks  of  colored  crayons  are  of  great  assistance  in  pri- 
mary work.  Colors  appeal  to  a  child  and  afford  him  great  pleas- 
ure. They  offer  a  means  of  securing  variety  of  work,  and  variety 
often  means  interest. 


Busy  Work,  What  and  How  287 

same  form  and  colors.    Do  not  hesitate  to  call  all  forms 
by  their  right  names  and  teach  pupils  to  do  so.     They 
will  thus  get  much  information  without  conscious  effort. 
Much  of  the  work  suggested  above  can  be  done  before 
the  child  has  learned  to  recognize  figures.     After  he  has 
learned  these,  he  may  be  required  to  reproduce  the  above 
stories  and  many  similar  ones  in  figures,  or  the  figures 
may  be  given  and  the  child  allowed  to  build  them  with 
the  objects.     Thus  he  associates  numbers  with  figures. 
Later,  the  answers  or  any  one  of  the  figures  may  be 
omitted  and  the  child  required  to  complete  the  story. 
Again,  he  may  be  given  the  material  and  merely  asked 
to  form  all  the  combinations  that  make  five,  seven,  twelve, 
etc.     In  this  last  work,  number  boxes  are  very  helpful. 
They  are  easily  made  from  calendar  pages  of  convenient 
size  pasted  upon  heavy  paper  or  lightweight  cardboard 
and  then  cut  into  squares.     The  rulings  on  the  calendar 
make  the  cutting  very  easy  and  save  time  and  labor. 
The  use  of  these  cards  is  made  much  more  convenient 
by  writing  the  same  number  on  the  reverse  side  or  by 
pasting  two  calendar  pages  together,  though  the  latter 
would  not  give  the  same  number  on  both  sides.    In  case 
two  pages  are  used,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
rulings  coincide,  so  that  no  chfficulty  shall  occur  in  cut- 
ting.    If  the  characters  are  written  on  the  reverse  side, 
the  sheet  should  be  ruled  one  way  to  agree  with  the  ruling 
on  the  opposite  side  and  then  cut  in  the  other  direction. 
The  writing  is  then  easily  done  in  the  proper  place.    The 
blank  squares  may  be  used  for  writing  the  arithmetical 
signs  and  extra  small  numbers.    There  should  be  many 
more  of  the  signs  and  of  numbers  up  to  twelve  than  of 
those  beyond  twelve,  and  some  of  these  smaller  numbers 
may  be  written  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  large-number 
cards.     These  cards  may  be  used  by  the  beginners  in 


288  The  Rural  School 

learning  to  associate  name  and  figure.  Pupils  may  find 
and  place  in  order  one  to  three,  one  to  five,  one  to  ten, 
etc.,  up  to  thirty  or  more  if  one  chooses  to  add  more 
numbers  to  the  boxes.  But  when  they  have  learned 
figures  to  thirty  there  is  but  little  for  them  to  learn  be- 
tween that  and  one  hundred,  except  forty,  fifty,  sixty,  etc. 

Figures  may  first  be  placed  upon  the  board,  and  the 
same  ones  may  be  found  in  the  boxes  by  comparing  them 
with  the  written  ones.  Afterward  -they  are  placed  in 
order  from  memory.  Thus,  counting  and  figures  are 
correlated.  Then  objects  may  be  chosen  to  correspond 
to  the  figures.    Figures  and  numbers  are  again  correlated. 

The  use  of  the  number  boxes  need  not  be  confined  to 
first-grade  pupils.  They  can  often  be  used  advantageously 
by  second-  and  third-grade  children  in  constructing  com- 
binations and  tables,  and  are  a  recreation  and  a  rest 
from  the  constant  writing  of  such  work. 

The  toy  alphabet  and  number  blocks,  which  can  be 
purchased  for  five  or  ten  cents  a  box  of  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-five  blocks,  may  be  used  by  the  first  grade  in 
hunting  figures  and  arranging  them  in  order,  and  may 
also  be  used  by  other  grades  in  studying  and  building 
forms  in  the  subject  of  cubic  measure.  In  the  same  way 
the  cardboard  squares  may  be  used  in  the  study  of  areas 
and  square  measure. 

Dominoes,  cheap  sets  of  which  may  be  had  for  five  or 
ten  cents,  may  be  used  as  combination  blocks,  the  com- 
binations and  answers  to  be  written  by  pupils.  Pupils 
may  also  be  asked  to  find  all  blocks  that  have  a  four  or  a 
six,  or  all  blocks  whose  coml:)ination  is  five  or  eight,  etc. 

Domino  combination  cards  may  be  made  by  pasting 
dots  or  squares  upon  plain  cards.  The  circles  and  squares 
may  be  purchased  "  ready  gummed  "  or  may  be  cut  from 
colored  paper  and  pasted. 


Busy  Work,  What  and  How 


289 


The  groups  may  be  of  different  colors  or  shape  or  may 
be  indicated  by  spacing  only.  These  may  be  used  for 
class  drill  or  for  seat  work. 


o„  o 


Elementary  Designs.  —  Many  of  the  things  suggested 
for  use  in  number  work  can  be  used  in  drawing  or  design 
work.  The  geometric  forms,  the  pegs,  the  toothpicks, 
etc.,  can  all  be  used  in  making  borders,  outlines  of  familiar 
objects,  etc.  Single  colors  or  harmonious  combinations 
may  be  used.  Forms  found  in  primers,  primary  arith- 
metics and  other  books  may  be  copied.  Pupils  may  be 
asked  to  make  all  the  designs  they  can  by  using  three 
sticks,  five  sticks,  etc.    For  example: 


NHFA°5 


Repetitions  of  any  of  these  forms  will  give  a  border. 


DOnOD   ITITI 


Reading  Helps.  —  In  reading  as  well  as  in  numbers 
much  busy  work  may  be  employed  profitably.  Reading 
boxes  are  among  the  most  useful  supplies.  As  soon  as  a 
child  knows  a  few  words  he  should  be  given  a  box  contain- 
ing a  number  of  copies  of  these  words  and  be  required  to 
find  as  many  copies  of  a  given  word  as  he  can.  Again, 
he  may  be  asked  to  find  a  certain  number  each  of  several 
different  words.    Then  a  list  of  words  may  be  placed  on 


290  The  Rural  School 

his  slate  or  on  the  board  and  he  be  asked  to  find  each 
word.  Later  he  may  be  asked  to  build  sentences  by  hunt- 
ing the  required  words  from  the  box.  At  first  one  sen- 
tence is  enough.  Later  several  may  be  given.  Again, 
certain  unknown  words  may  be  placed  in  the  box  and  the 
child  asked  to  select  all  the  words  he  knows  and  leave  the 
others.  This  may  be  called  gathering  flowers,  autumn 
leaves,  making  snowballs,  catching  fish,  etc.,  according 
to  the  season,  thus  making  it  a  game.  If  he  can  separate 
known  from  unknown  one  may  feel  reasonably  sure  that 
he  knows  the  ones  he  chooses.  If  one  makes  use  of 
phonograms  in  teaching  reading  he  may  ask  a  pupil  to 
find  all  the  af-words  in  his  box  —  eat,  rat,  iat,  etc.  —  or 
all  the  aw-words  —  can,  ran,  ian.  As  new  words  are 
added  to  the  list  of  known  words  they  should  be  added 
to  the  boxes. 

If  one  has  access  to  a  mimeograph,  or  any  sort  of  dupli- 
cating machine,  a  large  number  of  lists  of  the  words 
learned  and  many  sentences  using  these  words  may  be 
struck  off  and  used  as  review  lists  and  reading  exercises, 
as  copies  for  tracing  and  writing,  and  the  same  lists, 
printed  on  heavy  paper  or  cardboard,  may  be  used  to 
supply  the  reading  boxes,  thus  saving  the  labor  of  writing. 
Several  copies  of  each  word  should  be  in  every  box,  and 
as  in  the  case  of  the  number  cards,  their  use  will  be 
easier  if  the  same  word  is  on  each  side  of  the  card.  Sen- 
tences may  be  written  with  spaces  wide  enough  between 
the  lines  to  allow  the  laying  of  the  corresponding  word 
cards  below  the  words. 

Caring  for  Materials.  —  And  now  the  question  of  se- 
curing boxes  for  all  these  various  supplies  is  an  important 
one.  Without  boxes  or  envelopes  for  each  kind  of  ma- 
terial and  for  each  pupil,  the  distribution  and  collection 
of  the  material  takes  too  much  time  and  is  hard  upon  the 


Busy  Work,  What  and  How  291 

material.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  have  each  box  marked 
with  the  name  of  the  child  who  is  to  use  it.  This  renders 
each  child  responsible,  in  a  way,  for  the  care  and  preser- 
vation of  certain  material.  This  is  good  both  for  child 
and  material.  The  child  should  regard  the  latter  as  prop- 
erty, and  should  be  taught  to  give  it  care  and  respect. 
He  is  thus  taught  early  one  lesson  in  good  citizenship. 
The  plan  of  having  a  certain  box  for  each  child  is  es- 
pecially good  if  there  is  any  reason  why  it  is  best  that  one 
child  should  not  handle  material  used  by  another,  and  it 
avoids  annoyance  in  the  matter.  Material  that  may  be 
contaminated  may  then  be  destroyed  easily  without 
much  loss. 

All  material  should  be  collected  at  the  close  of  an  exer- 
cise and  not  be  left  to  be  handled  at  will  by  the  pupils 
and  become  too  common.  An  exercise  should  not  be 
continued  so  long  that  pupils  become  weary  of  it,  but 
each  should  be  required  to  do  the  work  assigned  to  the 
very  best  of  his  ability,  be  that  great  or  small. 

Thread  boxes  of  all  kinds  are  convenient  and  suitable 
for  all  busy  work  material,  and  they  can  be  secured  free 
from  any  dry  goods  merchant,  if  one  will  but  ask  to  have 
them  saved  for  him.  Try  to  keep  a  few  extras  always  on 
hand  to  replace  those  which  become  soiled  or  broken, 
and  to  receive  new  material  which  may  be  discovered  or 
invented  from  time  to  time. 

BUSY  WORK  FOR   OLDER  PUPILS 

Language,  Reading  and  Spelling  Helps.  —  Additional 
busy,  or  occupation  work,  in  language,  reading  and  spell- 
ing for  older  pupils  is  found  in  the  following  exercises: 
Pupils  may  search  for  and  make  lists  of  all  the  name 
words,    or   nouns;    the    action    words;    the    describing 


292  The  Rural  School 

words,  or  adjectives;  the  singular  nouns;  the  plural 
nouns;  possessives,  or  contractions,  etc.  Or,  he  may 
copy  a  certain  number  of  sentences  of  the  various  kinds 
or  all  the  sentences  containing  quotations,  possessives, 
proper  nouns,  contractions,  etc.  Again,  he  may  find  all 
the  words  he  can  beginning  with  a  certain  letter  of  the 
alphabet,  as:  all  the  a-words,  all  6-words;  or,  he  may 
take  the  letters  in  order,  finding  a  word  for  each  if  pos- 
sible, as:  apple,  haby,  cannot,  doll,  every,  etc. 

Incidentally,  the  child  is  studying  the  reading  lesson 
again,  willingly  and  advantageously,  which  he  would  not 
do  if  he  were  merely  asked  to  study  his  lesson  again.  He 
would  be  apt  to  think  he  knew  it  well  enough  and  resent 
being  asked  to  "  waste  more  time  "  on  it.  More  than 
that,  he  is  unconsciously  getting  spelling,  punctuation 
and  arrangement.  A  little  booklet  may  be  made  of  a 
few  sheets  of  tablet  paper  folded  once,  with,  perhaps,  a 
colored  cover,  and  tied  with  a  colored  cord.  These  may 
be  used  in  second  and  third  grades  for  writing  the  lists  of 
words  mentioned  and  called  spelling  books  or  word  books. 
They  will  help  to  make  willing  workers.  Pupils  may  occa- 
sionally be  asked  to  study  their  a-words,  their  6-words, 
etc.  The  fact  that  they  are  not  all  exactly  alike  will  not 
prevent  their  being  beneficial. 

An  old  exercise,  but  a  good  one  to  aid  in  spelling  and  to 
quicken  observation,  is  to  give  pupils  some  long  word 
like  Madagascar,  recognition,  or  some  such  word  and  let 
them  make  as  long  a  list  of  words  as  possible,  using  only 
the  letters  found  in  the  word  and  using  them  no  more 
times  in  any  one  word  than  they  are  actually  found  in 
the  given  word,  as:  Recognition,  —  cog,  cot,  core,  coin, 
cone,  tin,  ton,  tone,  tine,  tire,  tore,  etc. 

Color  and  Form  Work.  —  Color  and  form  work  offer 
a  number  of  opportunities  for  seat  work.     First,  there 


Busy  Work,  What  and  How  293 

are  scissors  and  plain  paper.  The  pupils  may  cut  def- 
inite forms,  squares,  circles,  triangles,  or  fruits,  vegeta- 
bles, etc.  There  are  usually  simple  drawings  of  objects  in 
the  primers  or  number  books,  which  the  little  people  may 
try  to  reproduce  by  cutting,  drawing,  or  stick-laying. 
Cardboard  geometric  forms  or  objects  may  be  traced,  if 
pupils  are  unable  to  draw  them,  and  then  colored  with 
drawing  crayons,  one  object  of  coloring  being  to  get  a 
nice,  smooth  coat  of  color,  and  another  one  to  confine 
one's  self  to  the  boundary  lines,  —  not  an  especially 
easy  thing  for  little  people  to  do. 

Another  occupation  is  the  cutting  out  of  pictures  from 
catalogues,  newspapers  and  similar  sources.  These  may 
also  be  colored,  if  desired,  though  the  cutting  is  the  main 
point,  because  it  demands  care  and  attention  and  trains 
to  accuracy.  Insist  upon  pupils  being  careful  of  scraps. 
Try  to  keep  them  from  the  floor  and  gather  any  that 
chance  to  fall. 

In  the  autumn,  leaves  of  many  shapes  may  be  traced, 
or  drawn  and  colored.  This  calls  attention  to  general 
shapes  and  to  character  of  margins.  The  teacher  may 
trace  leaves  on  cardboard,  then  perforate  them,  and  use 
them  for  sewing  cards  if  she  wishes. 

Busy  work  involving  comparison  may  be  done  by 
using  pegs,  splints  and  cardboard  forms.  Make  a  line 
one  unit  long,  two  units,  five  units;  make  square 
figures  one  unit  each  way,  three  units,  six  units; 
make  rectangles  one  unit  by  two  units,  one  unit  by 
three  units,  etc. 

Geography  Helps.  —  In  geography,  the  extension  of 
this  work  gives  drawing  to  scale.  An  occasional  exercise 
like  the  following  may  serve  as  seat  work.  A  section  of 
country  is  100  miles  X  60  miles  in  dimensions.  Draw 
plans  on  the  following  scales: 


294  The  Rural  School 

1"  equals  10  miles, 

1"  equals  20  miles, 
y^"  equals  20  miles, 
3^"  equals  10  miles. 

Plans  of  more  or  less  irregular  fields,  gardens,  yards,  etc., 
whose  dimensions  embrace  rods,  yards  and  feet  may  be 
drawn  on  varying  scales  also.  Little  diagrams  may  be 
made  and  called  maps  and  the  directions  marked  upon 
them,  first,  the  cardinal  points,  later  the  intermediate 
points  also.  Cut-up  maps  may  be  properly  assembled  or 
the  sections  used  for  tracing  or  drawing.  The  cut-up 
maps  may  be  purchased  at  a  toy  store  or  old  maps  a:ay 
be  pasted  on  fairly  heavy  cardboard  and  then  cut  on 
boundary  lines,  except  in  the  case  of  the  very  small  states. 
Several  of  these  may  be  left  comiected. 

Many  of  these  exercises  will  doubtless  suggest  others 
to  the  teacher  who  is  eager  and  alert  and  any  and  all  of 
them  may  be  adapted  to  suit  the  occasion  and  the  means 
of  application.  Without  the  ability  to  adapt,  many  of 
them  may  lose  their  vitality  and,  hence,  much  of  their 
effectiveness.  Well  used,  they  will  lessen  the  weariness  of 
mind  and  body  of  many  a  child  in  his  "  first  days  "  or 
first  years  in  school. 

When  one  really  begins,  he  will  discover  in  many  things 
possibilities  which  he  little  suspected.  And  when  one 
once  discovers  how  much  is  added  to  the  effectiveness  of 
his  work  and  to  the  pleasure  of  his  pupils  by  "  busy  work," 
he  will  never  willingly  ])C  without  a  considerable  amount 
and  variety  of  such  supplies,  even  at  the  expense  of  some 
money  and  considerable  time  and  labor  in  its  preparation. 


Chapter  V 
NUMBERS 

THE    NUMBER    IDEA. 

It  will  greatly  aid  in  the  teaching  of  numbers  or  arith- 
metic to  have  a  clear  notion  of  the  number  idea.    Without 
this  knowledge  the  teacher  is  at  sea,  not  knowing  whither 
he  is  going  or  which  way  he  should  steer  his  course.    For 
our  present  purpose  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the 
discussion  as  to  the  exact  meaning  of  the  term  "  number," 
but  it  will  be  sufficient  to  know  that  it  is  an  abstraction 
and  is  gained  in  the  same  way  in  which  any  other  such 
idea  is  gained.    One  gets  his  conception  of  the  abstraction 
"  redness  "  in  some  such  process  as  the  following;  viz.,  he 
sees  a  red  flower,  a  red  ribbon,  a  red  dress,  a  red  sky,  etc. 
After  a  time  the  mind  eliminates  or  abstracts  all  material 
from  these  ideas  and  leaves  the  idea  of  redness.     By  a 
similar  process  the  child  gets  his  idea  of  number.    He  gets 
his  idea  of  the  number  two,  not  from  the  contemplation 
of  the  figure  3,  but  from  seeing,  using,  and  handling  ob- 
jects, as  two  ears  of  corn,  two  horses,  two  eyes,  etc.     In- 
deed, he  should  have  some  notion  of  two  before  ever  the 
figure  is  presented  for  his  consideration  and  his  concep- 
tion of  two  should  be  quite  clear  before  he  is  given  such 
a  problem  as:   1  and  1  equals  f     In  "  The  Psychology  of 
Number,"  by  McLellan  and  Dewey,  number  is  defined  as 
"  The  measure  of  quantity."     It  has  also  been  defined  as 
"  The  measure  of  the  relation  of  things  of  the  same  kind," 

295 


296  The  Rural  School 

and  "  That  abstract  species  of  quantity  which  is  capable 
of  being  expressed  by  figures."  The  old  definition  of 
number  as  a  "  unit  or  collection  of  units  "  is  not  tech- 
nically true.  One  cannot  see  three,  but  may  see  three 
horses,  three  dollars,  or  three  fingers.  That  our  number 
idea  is  something  apart  from  the  objects  is  evident  from 
the  following:  If  a  number  is  a  collection  of  units,  two 
crayons  is  a  collection  of  units  and  is  the  number  two; 
for  a  similar  reason  two  dollars  is  two  also;  but  number 
two  must  equal  number  two,  hence  two  crayons  equal 
two  dollars,  which  is  absurd.  To  every  mature  mind  the 
number  idea  in  these  two  groups  of  objects  is  the  same, 
but  it  is  apart  from  the  objects  themselves. 

OBJECTS   OF    NUMBER    TEACfflNG 

With  the  above  brief  discussion  of  the  number  idea  as 
a  starting  point,  it  may  now  be  in  place  to  consider  the 
objects  of  number  teaching.  By  numbers  is  here  meant 
the  whole  subject  of  arithmetic  as  taught  in  the  common 
schools. 

I.  To  Develop  the  Number  Idea.  —  The  first  object  of 
number  teaching  should  be  the  development  of  a  correct 
number  idea.  If  this  is  an  abstraction  as  suggested  above, 
it  indicates  that  objects  should  be  used  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  idea,  and  that  there  should  be  a  variety  of 
objects.  If  a  child  never  saw  any  red  object  except  a  red 
rose,  he  would  never  get  the  notion  of  redness  apart  from 
a  rose;  it  is  necessary  that  he  see  a  number  of  red  objects. 
So  with  the  child  in  getting  the  number  notion,  he  should 
receive  it  from  a  variety  of  objects.  Not  from  three  fin- 
gers alone,  not  from  three  marks  on  the  blackboard  only; 
but  from  three  fingers,  three  chickens,  three  pigs,  three 
yards,  three  pints,  etc.     The  lack  of  a   variety  of  ob- 


Numbers  297 

jects  and  a  proper  use  of  them  may  be  the  cause  of  the 
bad  practice  so  common  in  our  schools  of  counting  in 
addition  instead  of  adding.  The  counting  of  the  fingers 
or  the  making  of  dots  on  the  blackboard  in  addition  and 
subtraction  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  a  habit. 
For  example,  4  should  mean  more  than  3  and  1.  It  should 
mean  just  as  clearly  2  and  2,  1  and  3,  four  I's,  5  less  1, 
and  perhaps  also,  one  and  one  third  threes,  etc.  When 
the  number  4  is  known  in  this  way,  a  child  will  hardly 
want  to  count  it  by  I's  if  asked  to  add  2  and  2. 

On  the  assumption  that  number  is  '"  measured  quan- 
tity," G.  B.  Longan,  formerly  Assistant  Superintendent 
of  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  devised  a  system  of  number 
work  in  which  all  the  smaller  numbers  and  many  others 
up  to  one  hundred  are  developed  by  a  process  of  meas- 
uring. Units  of  measure,  such  as  the  quart,  the  yard, 
the  nickel,  the  foot,  the  dime,  the  pound,  etc.,  are  used 
in  the  development  of  various  numbers.  There  seems  to 
be  a  fascination  and  interest  about  this  system  because 
it  deals  with  actual  units  of  business  life.  In  the  study 
and  development  of  tivo,  the  quart,  among  other  things, 
is  used;  with  three,  the  yard  is  used;  with  five,  the  nickel; 
with  ten,  the  dime,  etc.  This  is  a  very  complete  sj^stem 
and  one  by  which  fractions  and  the  various  number 
phases  may  be  represented  and  almost  marvelous  results 
attained.     (See  Longan's  "  First  Lessons  in  Arithmetic") 

In  the  early  stages  of  a  child's  study  of  numbers  he 
should  be  asked  to  compare  quantities,  or  use  his  judg- 
ment as  to  the  length  of  lines,  the  width  of  the  black- 
board, the  height  of  the  ceiling,  the  width  and  length  of 
a  book,  etc.  He  may  be  asked  to  draw  a  line  on  the 
board  one  foot  long,  another  twice  as  long,  another  half 
as  long,  etc.  As  this  is  being  done,  other  members  of 
the  class  may  be  called  upon  to  correct  or  corroborate 


298  The  Rural  School 

his  judgments,  and  in  the  end  all  this  work  should  be 
tested  by  an  accurate  measure. 

In  the  acquisition  of  the  number  notion,  some  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  grouping  of  objects.  At  first 
it  may  be  necessary  to  count  in  order  to  select  certain 
groups  of  objects,  but  it  should  be  the  aim  to  get  pupils 
to  recognize  the  number  in  a  group  of  objects  as  soon  as 
possible.  This  is  not  particularly  hard  to  do  up  to  five, 
but  a  little  experimenting  will  disclose  that  groups  larger 
than  five  often  require  separation  into  smaller  groups 
for  ready  recognition.  But  this  affords  good  opportunity 
for  drill  on  combinations.  Groups  of  actual  objects, 
objects  in  pictures,  and  groups  on  the  numeral  frame  are 
all  good  material  for  such  drill. 

2.  To  Give  Skill  in  the  Manipulation  of  Figures.  —  The 
second  object  in  the  teaching  of  numbers  or  arithmetic  is 
to  give  skill  in  the  use  of  figures.  It  is  not  sufficient  to 
grasp  a  number  idea,  but  one  must  learn  to  represent 
that  number  by  symbols  or  figures  and  acquire  dexterity 
in  the  use  of  large  numbers  beyond  the  mind's  actual  com- 
prehension. Thus  far  in  the  study  of  numbers,  there 
should  have  been  much  concrete  work  in  which  numbers 
were  represented  by  objects,  but  comparatively  little  in 
which  numbers  were  represented  abstractly  by  the  use 
of  figures.  The  child  now  needs  to  learn  to  read  and 
write  numbers,  to  add  and  subtract,  multiply  and  divide 
numbers  which  are  beyond  the  range  of  concrete  repre- 
sentation. 

Reading  and  Writing  Numbers.  —  It  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood that  no  use  of  figures  will  be  made  in  the  early 
part  of  number  work,  but  on  the  contrary,  as  soon  as  the 
child  has  the  conception  of  a  number,  it  may  be  repre- 
sented by  its  appropriate,  symbol.  By  this  means,  as 
soon  as  the  children  are  able  to  write,  much  seat  work 


Numbers  299 

can  be  given  and  thus  the  lessons  taught  in  class  can  be 
strengthened.  In  the  second  or  third  year,  when  the  time 
comes  that  they  should  learn  the  art  of  writing  numbers, 
they  should  early  learn  by  the  use  of  the  splints  that, 
''  Ten  units  of  one  order  make  one  of  the  next  higher." 
For  this  purpose  prepare  bundles  of  tens  (by  binding  ten 
splints  or  toothpicks  with  a  rubber  band),  and  bundles 
of  hundreds  (ten  bundles  of  tens). 
Eleven  will  require  one  bundle  of 
tens  and  one  separate  splint, 
twenty-two  will  require  two  bun- 
dles of  tens  and  two  separate 
splints.  By  such  concrete  ex- 
amples   pupils    will    soon     get     a 

clear  conception  of  the  method  of  representing  numbers 
by  figures. 

The  difference  between  a  place  or  order  and  a  period 
should  be  noted;  the  fact  that  a  period  contains  three 
places  or  orders;  and  that  the  names  of  these  periods, 
thousands,  millions,  etc.,  are  relatively  the  same  as  a 
person's  family  or  surname,  as  Smith,  Jones,  or  Brown; 
that  each  family  always  lives  in  the  same  relative  position 
in  respect  to  everj^  other  family;  e.  g.  the  thousands  al- 
ways live  in  the  next  house  to  left  of  units,  the  billions 
family  in  the  fourth  house,  may  all  be  made  interesting 
features  to  a  class  of  beginners  in  the  art  of  reading  and 
writing  numbers.  Continuing  the  figure,  one  may  say 
that  each  family  lives  in  a  house  of  exactly  the  same  size, 
each  having  just  three  rooms.  The  room  on  the  right  is 
always  occupied  by  the  units,  the  smallest  members  of 
the  family;  the  next  room  is  occupied  by  those  next  in 
size,  the  t€7is;  and  the  third  room  by  the  largest  mem- 
bers, the  hundreds.  There  may  be  any  number  from 
none  to  nine  in  a  room.    Since  there  must  always  be  three 


300  The  Rural  School 

rooms  in  each  house,  if  there  is  no  one  living  in  one  of  the 
rooms,  a  sign  is  put  up  to  say  that  it  is  empty.  The  sign 
is  always  the  same,  ''  0,"  naught.  The  figures  always 
show  how  many  units,  tens  or  hundreds  of  a  family  live 
in  each  room. 

The  Roman  notation  is  little  used  and  should  be  taught 
incidentally  as  it  is  presented  in  the  readers  and  else- 
where.   Little  formal  work  will  be  necessary  or  profitable. 

Formal  JVork  in  the  Fundamentals.  —  As  has  been  indi- 
cated, much  work  in  addition,  subtraction,  and  so  forth 
will  have  been  done  before  a  presentation  in  a  formal 
manner,  but  when  it  comes  time  to  add  numbers  repre- 
sented by  figures,  such  as  24  and  32,  the  numbers  should 
be  represented  by  means  of  splints,  the  24  by  two  tens 
and  four  ones  or  units,  the  32  by  three  bundles  of  tens 
and  two  units.  The  addition  consists  simply  in  uniting 
these  two  groups  which  will  give  five  bundles  of  tens  and 
six  units.  Whenever  the  separate  units  will  make  a 
bundle  of  tens  they  must  be  combined  into  such  a  group. 
By  a  similar  process  subtraction  and  multiplication  may 
be  illustrated.  Suppose  it  is  given  to  divide  33  by  2.  The 
number  33  may  be  represented  by  three  bundles  of  tens 
and  three  ones.  Dividing  by  2  means  finding  how  many 
twos  in  33  or  separating  33  into  two  equal  parts.  Taking 
the  second  conception  for  illustration,  the  tens  may  be 
separated  by  putting  one  bundle  in  one  place  and  an- 
other in  another  place;  one  ten  will  be  left  which  will 
have  to  be  broken  into  ones  before  it  can  be  divided. 
Doing  this  and  adding  them  to  the  other  ones  there  are 
now  thirteen  ones;  six  of  these  may  be  placed  with  one 
ten  and  six  with  the  other;  this  still  leaves  one  unit  which 
has  not  been  divided;  it  will  have  to  be  broken  and  one 
half  put  with  each  group,  thus  making  IGJ/^  in  each  place. 
The  custom  of  saying  that  33  divided  by  2  gives  16  and  1 


Numbers 


301 


remainder  is  a  questionable  practice  and  leaves  the  child 
mind  in  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  "  one  over,"  or 
remainder.  By  some  such  process,  concrete  illustrations 
can  be  given  for  all  the  fundamental  operations.  This 
should  be  done  so  that  the  child  may  get  clear  concep- 
tions of  these  processes. 

Fractions.  —  Pupils  should  begin  the  use  of  fractions 
from  almost  the  very  first.  If  concrete  illustrations  are 
used,  a  child  can  grasp  the  idea  of  one  half  about  as  soon 
as  he  gets  the  notion  of  two.  If  as  suggested  before,  a 
unit  be  taken  which  may  be  divided  into  other  units,  as 
the  quart,  yaxd,  nickel,  etc.,  he  will  have  little  trouble  in 
getting  the  notion  of  one  half,  one  third,  one  fifth,  etc. 
This  will  give  him  the  idea  that  a  fraction  may  express 
a  relation  or  ratio  and  that  it  is  not  necessarily  a  part  of  a 
unit.  He  will  have  no  trouble  in  comprehending  that 
one  pint  is  one  half  of  a  quart,  that  one  foot  is  one  third 
of  a  yard,  that  one  cent  is  one  fifth  of  a  nickel,  that  one 
inch  is  one  twelfth  of  a  foot,  etc. 

The  teacher  can  lead  his  pupils  to  a  more  general  notion 
of  fractions,  if  he  will  but  make  sure  that  the  terms 
halves,  fourths,  sixths,  etc.,  are  understood  to  be  the 
names  of  parts,  and  may  be  treated  as  so  many  apples, 
boys,  pencils,  etc.  Two  fifths  plus  one  fifth  need  give  no 
more  trouble  than  2  apples  plus  1  apple.  The  above  ex- 
ample may  sometimes  be  written  2  fifths  and  1  fifth.  To 
illustrate  the  reduction  of  a 
fraction  to  other  terms,  the  3 

rectangle  may  be  used.  The 
accompanying  rectangle  di- 
vided into  sixths  may  be 
used  to  illustrate  that  two 
sixths  equal  one  third,  that 
four  sixths  equal  two  thirds. 


1 

6 

1 
6 

1 
6 

1 
6 

1 
6 

1 
6 

302  The  Rural  School 

By  dividing  the  rectangle  into  other  parts  the  common 
denominators  of  other  fractions  may  be  illustrated.  Again, 
it  is  quite  easy  to  show  that  two  cents  are  one  fifth  of  a 
dime,  that  three  inches  are  one  fourth  of  a  foot,  etc. 
Begin  the  use  of  fractions  early  in  concrete  ways  and  in 
connection  with  other  arithmetic  work  and  never  allow 
them  to  become  a  bugaboo. 

Drill.  —  To  know  how  to  add  and  subtract,  to  multiply 
and  divide  both  simple  and  fractional  numbers  is  not 
enough;  there  is  need  of  accuracy  and  speed.  These 
can  be  attained  only  by  drill  and  rapid  work:  7  and  4 
should  mean  11  just  as  readily  as  two  ones  (11)  mean 
eleven.  Three  times  7  should  mean  21  without  any  hesi- 
tancy. The  forty-five  combinations  of  addition  should 
be  thoroughly  learned  and  drilled  upon  in  order  that 
addition  may  be  rapidly  done  and  become  more  than  a 
counting-by-one  process.  There  should  be  much  count- 
ing by  2's,  3's,  4's,  etc.,  begimiing  first  with  2,  then  with  1, 
then  with  3,  as  the  case  may  demand.  For  example,  in 
counting  by  2's  begin  2,  4,  6,  8,  etc.,  next,  1,  3,  5,  7,  9,  etc. 
In  counting  by  3's  begin,  3,  6,  9,  etc.,  next,  1,  4,  7,  10,  etc., 
then  2,  5,  8,  etc.  This  drill  work  is  more  or  less  abstract 
and  should  follow  the  work  of  development  suggested  on 
previous  pages  in  this  chapter. 

The  combinations  in  multiplication  should  be  pre- 
sented in  various  forms,  other  than  those  found  in 
the  usual  textljook.  For  example,  an  oral  drill  on 
the  multiplication  table  may  be  given  in  this  mamier: 
2  times  3  equals?  2  times  4  equals?  3  times  3  equals? 
2  times  5  equals?  2  times  6  equals?  3  times  4  equals? 
2  times  7  equals?  3  times  5  equals?  2  times  8  equals? 
4  times  4  equals?  etc.,  the  teacher  keeping  in  mind  the 
results  of  the  multi])li('ation  table,  as  16,  18,  20,  21,  22, 
etc.,  and  giving  the  pupil  the  combinations  which  produce 


Numbers  303 

these  results.    This  work  should  be  rapid  fire,  questions 
and  answers,  with  no  time  for  formalities. 

Visual  Forms.  —  The  form  in  which  the  work  is  placed 
before  the  eye  is  often  suggestive  and  helpful.  Instead 
of  writing  the  example  3  +  4,  it    is   perhaps   better   to 

3 

write  it    ,  .,  the  "  -j-  "  indicating  addition.    Subtraction 

...  .  77 

and  multiplication  may  be  written  thus :         ,         .  These 

o     X  o 

are  more  nearly  the  customary  forms  of  business  life.     A 

109 
convenient  way   of   expressing  division  is  thus:     r . 

This  becomes  quite  convenient  in  the  division  of  decimals, 
for  example: 

2.5  1500 


25)62.5    or      /15.)225/00. 
15 
75 
75 


Dividing  225  by  .15  we  move  the  decimal  point  two 
places  to  the  right  and  place  the  decimal  point  in  the 
answer  when  we  come  to  it  in  the  process  of  division.  If 
required  to  add  fractions  the  following  is  a  good  form: 

The  common  denominator  60  is 
found  and  placed  below  the  line  and 
the  sum  of  the  several  numerators, 
or  139  is  placed  above  this  common 
denominator.  This  fraction  is  sim- 
-.  «  -.  o  n  in  plified  and  added  to  the  sum  of  the 
■^^-^eo  60  ^60-  whole  number.  Never  reduce  such 
examples  to  improper  fractions. 


36f 

40 

41* 

30 

16f 

24 

87f 

45 

304  The  Rural  School 

Good  forms  and  neat  work  on  blackboard,  slates  and 
tablets  is  worth  while.  The  following  are  some  good  forms 
for  seat  work. 


I.        3 

? 

3 

? 

+  4 
? 

+  4 

7 

7 

7 

2.          7 

7 

7 

7 

—  4 
? 

—  3 
? 

—  ? 

4 

—  ? 
3 

? 

? 

? 

? 

—  4 
3 

—  3 

4 

—  ? 

4 

—  ? 

3 

3.        4 

3 

3 

4 

X  3 
? 

X  4 
? 

X  ? 
12 

X    ? 
12 

? 

? 

? 

? 

X  4 

12 

X  3 
12 

X  ? 
12 

X  2 

12 

4.        4 
?)12 

4 
?)8 

_5 

?)10 

2 

?)4 

2)6 

? 
3)6 

3 

?)9 

4 
3)? 

Though  it  may  seem  a  waste  of  time  and  though  it  often 
grows  monotonous  to  the  teacher,  nevertheless,  vigor- 
ous and  judicious  drill  on  the  fundamentals  is  the  highest 
type  of  economy.  It  not  only  saves  time  directly  in  the 
work  of  performing  these  operations  in  later  years,  but 
it  gives  the  pupil  confidence  in  himself,  and  in  after  days, 


Numbers  305 

when  he  comes  to  solve  problems,  he  will  not  lose  so 
much  time  from  making  mistakes  in  the  fundamentals, 
and  be  led  to  think  that  he  is  working  problems  wrongly. 
Drill,  drill,  drill,  but  never  let  it  grow  monotonous  or 
dull.    Pupils  enjoy  lively,  rapid  drill  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

3.  To  Develop  Thinking  and  Reasoning.  —  The  third 
object  of  arithmetic  teaching  is  to  develop  clear  thinking 
and  reasoning.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  loose,  inaccurate 
thinking  in  our  schools.  The  teacher  asks  a  question  and 
the  pupil  gives  a  word  or  two,  merely  hints  at  the  answer, 
and  it  is  passed  as  good.  It  is  not  good,  for  the  pupil  has 
only  a  hazy  idea  of  the  correct  answer  asked  for.  He 
should  be  required  to  clarify  his  thought  by  stating  it 
definitely  in  words.  The  accurate  expression  of  an  indi- 
vidual's own  thought  must  be  preceded  by  a  clear  impres- 
sion of  the  idea.  The  teachers  of  the  past  generation  re- 
quired their  pupils  to  learn  the  rules  and  definitions 
"  by  heart,"  and  ofttimes  they  received  only  "  words, 
words,  words."  The  pendulum  has  swung  to  the  other 
extreme,  and  now  the  teacher  gets  little  of  either  words  or 
thought,  in  the  pupil's  reply. 

Mathematics  is  an  exact  science  and,  in  a  sense,  one 
reply  is  right  and  all  others  wrong;  one  answer  is  correct 
and  all  others  incorrect.  In  the  arithmetic  class  the 
teacher  has  the  best  opportunity  offered  anywhere  in 
the  school  for  teaching  accuracy  and  exactness,  for  re- 
quiring clear  thinking  through  exact  expression. 

To  accomplish  similar  ends,  there  should  be  much  anal- 
ysis in  the  arithmetic  exercises.  This  process  is  simply 
thinking  accurately  the  parts  or  conditions  of  the  prob- 
lem and  then  giving  the  thought  clear  expression.  Pupils 
can  acquire  no  better  habit  than  that  of  logical  and  ac- 
curate thinking  and  clear  expression.  This,  analysis  will 
give  if  well  taught. 


306  The  Rural  School 

Below  are  given  a  number  of  forms  for  analysis  of  the 
fundamentals  in  arithmetic.  Let  the  teacher  not  mistake 
the  author's  purpose  in  giving  them.  They  are  not  to  be 
learned  and  fitted  to  the  problem;  this  could  be  done 
with  little  or  no  thinking.  The  thinking  should  precede 
the  expression,  not  the  expression  the  thinking.  These 
are  goals  towards  which  the  teacher  should  lead  his 
pupils  in  their  thinking  and  reasoning,  and  when  they 
have  thought  the  conditions  clearly,  in  general,  the  ex- 
pression will  take  care  of  itself. 

A   FORM    FOR   ADDITION 

Example:  A  boy  paid  5c  for  a  pencil,  10c  for  a  tab- 
let, and  20c  for  a  book;  how  many  cents  did  he  spend  in 
all?  Analysis:  If  he  spent  5c  for  a  pencil,  10c  for  a 
tablet,  and  20c  for  a  book,  he  would  spend  for  all  the 
sum  of  5c,  10c,  and  20c,  or  35c. 

A   FORM    FOR    SUBTRACTION 

Example:  A  boy  had  12  marbles  and  lost  4  of  them; 
how  many  had  he  left?  Analysis:  If  a  boy  had  12  marbles 
and  lost  4  of  them,  he  would  have  left  12  marbles  less  4 
marbles,  or  8  marbles. 

A    FORM    FOR   MULTIPLICATION 

Example:  If  one  pencil  costs  5c,  what  will  6  pencils 
cost?  Analysis:  If  one  pencil  costs  5c,  six  pencils  will 
cost  6  times  5c  (not  6  times  5,  5  times  6  cents,  or  6  pen- 
cils times  5c),  which  is  30c. 

FORMS  FOR  DIVISION 

(1)  Example:  If  6  hats  cost  $30,  what  will  one  hat 
cost?  Analysis:  One  hat  will  cost  one  sixth  of  $30,  or  $5. 
(No  use  for  the  expression  "  as  many  as  "  in  this  form.) 


Numbers  307 

(2)  Example:  At  S6  each  how  many  hats  can  be 
bought  for  $36?  Analysis:  As  many  hats  can  be  bought 
for  $36  as  $6  is  contamed  times  in  $36,  which  is  6  times, 
or  6  hats. 

4.  To  Give  Ideas  of  Certain  Commercial  Forms  and 
Practices.  — -  This  gives  rise  to  the  teaching  of  percentage 
with  a  number  of  its  applications,  and  denominate  num- 
bers with  problems  illustrating  many  business  usages. 
All  this  should  be  brought,  as  nearly  as  possible,  within 
the  range  of  the  pupil's  experience.  No  textbook  can 
give  sets  of  problems  which  will  suit  all  the  schools  into 
which  the  book  is  likely  to  come.  It  remains  for  the 
teacher  to  make  many  problems  for  his  pupils  so  that 
the  school  and  the  home  will  be  brought  close  together 
and  more  or  less  united  in  the  work  of  rearing  the  young. 
If  the  school  be  in  the  country,  there  should  be  many 
problems  relating  to  the  farm,  —  to  agriculture,  stock 
raising,  home  economics,  etc.  It  should  be  the  aim  of 
the  teacher  to  make  this  part  of  the  arithmetic  very 
practical.  The  following  problems  are  offered  as  sug- 
gestions. 

John's  father  had  a  field  of  40  acres  of  corn  which 
produced  37  bushels  per  acre.  It  was  worth  64  cents  per 
bushel.  How  much  did  he  make  on  this  field,  providing 
he  spent  20  days  plowing,  3  days  harrowing,  24  days 
cultivating,  3  days  for  an  extra  man  in  planting,  3  cents 
per  bushel  for  husking,  and  rent  of  the  land  was  worth  $5 
per  acre?  The  price  of  team,  man  and  corn  should  all 
be  determined  by  prevailing  prices  of  the  neighborhood, 
indeed  the  whole  example  should  be  suited  to  some  boy's 
or  girl's  home  condition. 

This  problem  might  be  changed  or  enlarged  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Would  it  pay  better  to  sell  the  corn  or 
feed  it  to  hogs  at  the  present  market  price,  or  would  it 


308  The  Rural  School 

be  more  profitable  to  make  silage  of  the  whole  crop  and 
feed  it  to  the  cows?  Would  it  pay  better  to  churn  the 
cream  when  butter  is  25  cents  a  pound  or  sell  it  provid- 
ing butter  fat  is  28  cents  a  pound? 

Mary's  mother  ha's  a  flock  of  100  hens.  She  feeds  them 
a  peck  of  oats  and  5  pounds  of  bran  per  day.  Twice  per 
week  she  gives  them  ground  bone  or  blood  meal  costing 
25c.  In  the  last  month  she  has  spent  50c  for  medicine. 
They  are  averaging  3  dozen  eggs  per  day;  have  they  been 
paying  for  the  last  month?  The  problem  may  be  ex- 
tended for  the  whole  year,  bringing  in  the  varying  condi- 
tions of  the  different  seasons. 

A  man  had  $7000  in  cash  which  he  deposited  in  the 
First  National  Bank.  He  bought  a  quarter  section  of 
land,  for  which  he  paid  $15  per  acre.  He  bought  a  team 
of  mules,  a  wagon  and  harness.  He  bought  posts,  barbed 
wire  and  staples  with  which  to  fence  the  farm.  He  also 
bought  fencing,  posts  and  nails  with  which  to  fence  a 
barn  lot  10  by  12  rods.  He  bought  lumber  and  built 
a  barn,  a  house,  sheds,  chicken  house,  etc.,  etc.,  etc.  He 
bought  plows,  mowing  machine,  rake,  etc.  He  planted 
his  crops  and  reaped  his  harvest,  cut  his  hay  and  put  it 
into  barn  and  stack,  etc.  This  can  be  continued  indef- 
initely, so  that  a  review  class  may  find  work  here  for 
the  whole  winter. 

The  class  should  be  required  to  compute  the  number 
of  posts  required  for  fencing  the  farm,  the  wire  and  the 
staples,  and  the  cost  of  each.  The  amount  and  cost  of 
lumber,  nails,  etc.,  for  the  barn  should  all  be  computed 
by  the  members  of  the  class.  The  size  could  be  agreed 
upon  by  the  class,  and  the  price  of  labor,  lumber,  etc., 
should  be  determined  by  the  local  markets.  The  number 
of  tons  of  hay  in  barn  and  stack  should  be  computed  by 
rules  found  in  the  arithmetics  and  elsewhere.    The  cost 


Numbers  309 

of  planting,  plowing,  harvesting,  etc.,  and  the  profits 
from  a  field  should  be  computed,  using  data  from  neigh- 
boring farms.  Notes  should  be  given  and  received  and 
the  interest  reckoned.  In  fact,  all  the  transactions  likely 
to  occur  in  the  course  of  a  farmer's  business  life  may  be 
brought  into  this  problem.  This  plan  of  arithmetic 
teaching  has  been  tried,  and  it  proved  very  interesting  to 
the  class. 

Superintendent  Jessie  Field  of  Iowa  has  published  a 
little  book  full  of  problems  for  the  rural  schools,  but 
"  ready-made "  problems  are  not  to  be  compared  to 
"  homemade  "  problems  which  bring  in  actual  condi- 
tions as  they  are  in  the  pupil's  home. 

There  are  probably  other  objects  for  the  teaching  of 
arithmetic  but  it  does  not  come  within  the  province  of 
this  book  to  treat  them  further. 


Chapter   VI 

LEARNING    TO    WRITE 
TEACHING  THE  BEGINNERS 

Writing  an  Art.  —  Writing  for  the  little  people!  What 
shall  they  do?  When?  How?  These  are  the  points 
worthy  of  consideration.  Children  often  know  some- 
thing of  words  and  of  number  when  they  start  to  school, 
but  seldom  do  they  know  anything  about  writing.  Learn- 
ing to  write  is  not  the  simple  or  the  inconsequential  thing 
that  it  is  often  thought  to  be.  It  approaches  a  fine  art 
in  nature  and  requires  both  mental  effort  and  muscular 
skill.  The  muscles  cannot  execute  well  until  there  is  both 
a  clear  and  an  exact  mental  image  of  the  thing  to  be  ex- 
ecuted. Even  then  the  muscles  cannot  execute  the 
mental  picture  until  they  have  been  brought  under 
subjection  to  the  mind  by  frequent  and  painstaking 
efforts.  After  the  muscles  can  execute  the  will  of  the 
writer,  the  writing  will  improve  as  the  mental  image 
becomes  more  ideal. 

Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  good  penmanship,  and 
in  this  case,  as  in  many  another,  "  There  is  no  excellence 
without  great  labor."  When  children  enter  school  their 
muscles  are  entirely  untrained  in  such  exercises  as  are 
required  in  writing,  and,  for  the  reasons  just  stated, 
writing,  if  it  is  done  in  a  painstaking  manner,  is  in  its  first 
stages  an  exacting  and  a  fatiguing  exercise.     Whenever 

310 


Learning  to  Write  311 

a  child  has  tried  faithfully  and  done  creditably  well,  his 
work  should  be  encouraged  and  commended.  If  the 
teacher  can  say,  "  This  is  a  fine  word,"  or,  "  Why,  this 
is  almost  as  good  as  mine;  now  let  me  see  if  you  can  write 
this  word  just  as  nicely,"  he  is  quite  sure  to  get  an  ear- 
nest effort  at  least.  It  is  not  then  so  discouraging  to  the 
child  to  be  shown  his  errors  and  their  corrections. 

When  and  How  Much.  —  Good  authorities  differ  con- 
cerning the  advisability  of  requiring  little  people  of  five 
or  six  years  of  age  to  write  at  all,  but  most  teachers  begin 
the  work  of  teaching  about  as  soon  as  the  child  enters 
school.  A  reasonable  amount  of  such  work  is  not  too 
much  for  the  child  to  attempt;  but  all  agree  that  no 
long-continued  efforts  should  be  required  in  the  initial 
stages  of  the  work.  The  necessity  for  early  writing  is  the 
greater  in  those  schools  where  the  teacher  does  not  have 
a  considerable  amount  and  variety  of  seat  work  to  keep 
the  little  pupils  employed  in  helpful  and  pleasant  occupa- 
tions. But,  it  is  under  precisely  these  conditions  that 
the  child  is  apt  to  be  asked  to  write  too  much.  The 
teacher  wishes  to  keep  him  busy,  and  it  is  an  easy  way  to 
say,  "  Write  all  the  lesson,"  or,  "  Write  this  sentence  ten 
times,"  etc.  Pupils  should  be  kept  busy  during  their 
school  hours,  but  a  writing  exercise  should  have  a  more 
important  purpose  than  merely  to  keep  pupils  occupied. 

It  is  under  these  conditions,  also,  that  the  exercise  is 
apt  to  be  done  carelessly  and  so  do  more  harm  than  good. 
Only  some  unusual  condition  or  circumstance  should  ever 
make  a  teacher  willing  to  accept  written  work  which  is 
not  done  to  the  best  of  the  pupil's  ability.  Such  work 
is  not  only  detrimental  to  the  penmanship  itself,  but 
also  allows  the  child  to  form  bad  habits  in  general. 

First  Lessons.  —  The  child's  first  writing  ought  to  be 
ahnost  entirely  blackboard  work,  because  the  characters 


312  The  Rural  School 

may  be  made  much  larger  and  with  easy,  free,  muscular, 
movements.  It  avoids  the  cramped  position  of  the  hand 
apt  to  be  assumed  in  grasping  a  small,  and  sometimes  a 
short,  slate  or  lead  pencil.  His  muscles  should  not  be 
taxed  with  making  small,  fine  characters,  until  he  is  able 
to  make  the  forms  fairly  well,  at  least,  in  large  charac- 
ters, with  free  movements.  He  should  also  write  with- 
out lines  and  spaces,  as  he  finds  the  forms  themselves 
difficult  enough  to  occupy  his  attention  without  the 
added  effort  of  "  keeping  on  the  line  "  and  confining 
himself  to  space  limits. 

It  is  better,  in  the  beginning,  that  the  pupil  should  see 
the  teacher  write  the  word  or  exercise  which  he  is  to  copy. 
This  gives  him  the  benefit  of  seeing  how  it  is  done.  Even 
older  people,  those  of  mature  minds,  can  often  perform 
a  task  or  an  exercise  more  easily  after  having  seen  it  done 
than  they  could  have  done  without  the  illustration. 
Little  folk  need  the  example  of  ''  how  to  do  "  even  more. 
The  teacher,  too,  by  this  means,  is  better  able  to  call 
attention  to  the  point  of  beginning,  the  nature  of  strokes, 
particular  turns,  and  any  peculiar  or  difficult  parts  of  a 
word  or  letter. 

While  one  of  the  points  for  which  we  strive  in  more 
advanced  writing  is  speed,  the  main  points  in  primary 
writing  are  form,  and  good  habits  of  position  and  move- 
ments. In  the  first  respect,  on  account  of  its  slower 
movements  and  attention  to  details  of  form,  the  subject 
is  somewhat  related  to  drawing. 

MATERIALS 

Use  of  Copy.  —  It  is  scarcely  wise  or  profitable  to  ask 
or  allow  a  child,  who  is  just  learning  to  write,  to  repeat 
an  exercise  more  than  two  or  three  times  from  a  single 


Learning  to  Write  313 

model  form,  for  the  reason  that  he  is  apt  to  observe  the 
copy  less  and  less  carefully  as  he  gets  farther  and  farther 
from  it.  This  is  not  applicable  to  begimiers  only,  for, 
though  it  should  not  be,  it  is  often  true  that  the  more  ad- 
vanced pupils'  copybooks  show  poorer  writing  on  the 
last  line  of  a  page  than  on  the  first  line.  On  this  account, 
it  would  be  beneficial  if,  instead  of  only  one  model  form 
on  a  page,  all  lower-grade  copybooks  had  two,  or  even 
three.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  require  begimiers  to  copy 
words  or  sentences  from  the  board  while  at  their  seats 
before  they  have  learned  to  write  quite  well.  It  is  im- 
possible to  see  the  characters  and  to  write  at  the  same 
time.  It  is  too  difficult  for  them  to  keep  the  whole 
form  in  mind  while  writing  the  word,  and,  unless  one 
can  do  so,  continual  halting  is  necessary  while  the  eye 
travels  back  and  forth  from  board  to  desk. 

Making  Copies.  —  To  save  time  the  teacher  may  pre- 
pare many  copy  slips  which  he  may  distribute  to  the 
class  to  be  copied  on  slates  or  paper.  They  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  movable  and  may  always  be  placed  just 
above  the  line  which  the  pupil  is  writing.  By  this  means 
he  may  cover  his  own  cruder  efforts  and  keep  the  model 
constantly  before  him.  With  impression  paper,  a  num- 
ber of  copies  of  the  same  specimens  may  be  made,  or  a 
number  of  different  specimens  may  be  made  and,  by 
exchanging  the  copies,  a  set  will  last  a  class  for  some  time. 
Another  time  saver  is  to  have  the  little  people  first  find 
certain  words  or  build  a  sentence  from  the  script  word  in 
their  reading  boxes,  —  see  use  of  these  boxes  under 
Reading  Seat  Work,  —  and  then  copy  these  same  words 
or  sentences  on  slates  or  paper.  If  a  person  has  access 
to  a  duplicating  machine  of  some  sort,  sheets  of  sen- 
tences may  be  prepared  which  may  be  used  as  reading 
lessons  and  then  preserved  for  writing  purposes. 


314  The  Rural  School 

Do  not  teach  or  allow  the  pupils  to  print.  It  is  a  waste 
of  time  and  serves  no  particularly  good  purpose,  as  there 
are  but  few  times,  either  in  school  or  out,  when  one  has 
occasion  to  use  it.  Those  who  need  it  can  learn  it  when 
the  need  for  it  occurs.  Then,  too,  its  use  develops  the 
finger  movement. 

Writing  Material.  —  As  has  been  suggested  already, 
the  first  writing  materials  should  be  crayon  and  black- 
board. These  are  followed  by  slate  and  pencil  or  paper 
and  ink,  preferably  unruled  paper  at  first.  When  either 
slate  or  lead  pencils  are  used,  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  they  are  of  reasonable  length  so  that  they  may  be 
held  properly.  The  use  of  an  extremely  short  pencil 
causes  a  pinched,  cramped  position  of  the  hand.  When 
ink  is  used,  the  wells  should  have  just  enough  ink  in  them 
so  that  pen  points  will  not  be  filled.  Pen  wipers  should 
be  used  after  the  first  lesson,  and  blotters  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. In  some  graded  schools,  the  use  of  pen  and  ink  is 
introduced  in  the  first  grade,  but,  in  general.  Just  as  satis- 
factory results,  if  not  more  so,  with  fewer  difficulties,  are 
obtained  by  beginning  the  use  of  these  materials  some- 
what later. 

How  to  Handle  Materials.  —  All  danger  of  accidents  to 
pens,  or  from  overturned  ink,  or  the  use  of  such  material 
at  inappropriate  times  may  be  obviated  by  collecting 
pens  and  ink  at  the  close  of  the  writing  period.  A  light, 
shallow,  wooden  box  serves  nicely  as  a  receptacle  in  which 
to  collect  the  ink,  and  a  pasteboard  box  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  depth  and  any  convenient  length  and  width, 
according  to  number  of  pupils,  serves  for  the  pens.  Rule 
the  cover  of  the  box  into  squares,  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
to  one  inch  in  dimension,  and  make  holes  at  the  inter- 
sections of  the  lines  by  perforating  with  a  sharpened  lead 
pencil.     Letter  the  rows,  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  and  number  the 


Learning  to  Write  315 

holes  in  a  row,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and  tie  the  cover  on  the  box 
securely  with  small,  strong  cord.  The  pens  ai:e  collected 
by  rows,  inverted,  and  placed  in  these  holes.  As  each 
pupil's  pen  is  thus  known  by  letter  and  by  number,  pens 
may  be  passed  and  collected  quickly  without  confusion. 

DISCUSSION   OF   METHODS 

System.  —  It  is  not  the  intention  in  this  chapter  to 
discuss  systems  of  writing  further  than  to  say  that  the 
general  consensus  of  opinion  is,  that  whatever  system 
professional  penmen,  bookkeepers  and  business  men 
may  select  for  speed,  the  easiest  to  learn  to  write  well  and 
by  far  the  easiest  to  read  is  the  vertical  system  or,  at  most, 
a  style  that  has  only  a  slight  slant.  Some  will  argue  that 
a  child  naturally  changes  his  style  as  he  advances  in 
grade.  This  is  no  argument  against  the  system,  as  he 
does  that  to  some  degree,  regardless  of  the  system  by 
which  he  is  taught.     He  is  only  individualizing  his  style. 

Position.  —  Teachers  can  err  by  insisting  too  strongly 
upon  one  certain  position  for  every  one,  as  well  as  by 
being  careless  about  the  whole  matter.  A  slightly  side 
position  usually  gives  better  desk  support  for  the  arm 
than  a  straight  front  position  unless  desks  are  quite 
wide.  The  arm  should  not  be  allowed  to  hang  off  the 
desk,  as  is  apt  to  happen  when  one  has  neared  the  bottom 
of  a  page,  and  leave  all  the  weight  upon  the  hand,  as  this 
hampers  free  movement.  Often  pupils  act  as  though 
they  had  but  one  hand,  as  far  as  writing  is  concerned, 
and  they  try  to  hold  the  paper  in  position  by  pressing 
down  with  the  writing  hand  instead  of  using  the  other 
hand  for  that  purpose.  This  also  prevents  good  muscu- 
lar action.  Having  both  hands  on  the  desk  is  apt  to 
insure  corresponding  elevation  of  the  shoulders. 


316  The  Rural  School 

Usually  the  back  of  the  pen  hand  should  be  turned 
upward,  instead  of  sidewise,  the  ends  of  fourth  and  Httle 
fingers  acting  as  a  support,  but  the  shape  of  the  hand 
has  some  bearing  upon  the  matter  and  an  easy  position 
for  one  is  not  always  easy  for  another.  The  shape  of  the 
first  finger  is  a  very  sure  index  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
pen  or  pencil  is  being  gripped  too  tightly.  If  the  whole 
length  of  the  finger  presents  a  nicely  rounded  outward 
curve,  then  all  is  well,  but  if  the  middle  joint  is  sharply 
bent  and  the  lower  half  of  the  finger  bends  inward,  the 
grip  is  too  tense  and  the  hand  is  strained.  These  little 
signs  are  easily  remembered  and  observed,  by  the  pupils 
as  well  as  by  the  teacher,  and  serve  as  a  simple  but 
effective  guide. 

In  general,  the  body  should  be  erect,  leaning  slightly 
forward,  but  not  bent  sidewise,  humped  over  the  desk, 
or  allowed  to  take  any  awkward,  ungainly,  or  distorted 
position.  The  feet  placed  flat  upon  the  floor  will  assist 
in  assuming  and  maintaining  this  position.  The  head 
should  be  erect  that  the  eyes  may  look  squarely  at 
the  copy. 

Movement.  —  While  form,  as  was  said  before,  is  the 
main  feature  in  lower-grade  writing,  yet  no  pains  should 
be  spared  to  make  muscular  movements  as  free  and  as 
easy  as  possible.  To  this  end  a  number  of  movement 
exercises  are  beneficial.  A  few  good  exercises  are  those 
shown  on  page  317:  Lines  of  undotted  i\s  and  u's  com- 
bined with  an  upward  circle;  w's  or  rn's  with  the  down- 
ward circle;  the  regular  oval;  the  inverted  oval;  and  the 
old  style  /.  These  should  all  be  large  enough  to  re- 
quire the  arm  movement.  To  secure  uniformity  and 
regularity  of  movement  in  these  exercises,  it  is  well  to 
count  for  the  writing,  first  slowly,  then  rapidly.  For  oval 
count  one;  for  i  and  /,  two  each;  for  u  and  n,  three  each. 


Learning  to  Write 


317 


Analysis.  —  A  number  of  years  ago  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  subject  of  writing  was  the  analysis  of  letters, 
that  is,  the  naming  of  the  principles  which  they  con- 
tained. Now  the  pendulum  has  swung  entirely  to  the 
other  side  and  scarcely  any  reference  is  ever  made  to 
principles.  No  formal  analysis  will  make  a  good  pen- 
man, but  some  attention  to  the  similarity  of  various  let- 
ters will  be  of  assistance  in  their  formation,  e.  g.,u  consists 
of  two  i's,  minus  the  dots;  w  is  u  with  a  finishing  line  like 
V,  while  the  first  part  of  v  is  like  the  first  part  of  n;  6  is  Z 
finished  like  v,  and  h  is  I  finished  like  the  last  of  n;  g  is 
a  with  a  downward  loop,  while  j  is  i  with  the  downward 
loop;  d  is  a  with  an  upward  extension,  or,  it  is  c,  com- 
bined with  the  t  without  the  cross;  d  also  contains  all 
the  essential  features  of  a,  c,  i,  and  t,  except  the  dot  and 
the  cross;    y  is  the  first  of  n  and  the  j  minus  the  dot. 


318  The  Rural  School 

This  sort  of  analysis,  which  might  be  continued  much 
farther,  camiot  fail  to  be  helpful  in  writing,  and  also 
causes  close  observation.  An  opportunity  to  cultivate 
this  faculty  can  be  profitably  seized,  wherever  met. 

Dividing  the  Writing  Period.  —  Each  writing  period 
should  be  divided  into  two  or  three  parts,  or,  if  time  is 
very  short,  the  different  sorts  of  exercise  may  be  taken 
at  different  and  alternating  periods.  One  part  of  the 
period  should  be  given  to  movement  exercises,  another 
to  drill  on  letter  forms,  and  a  third  to  individual  writing. 
If  all  are  drilling  on  one  letter  form,  the  more  common 
errors  are  easily  pointed  out  and  corrected.  The  num- 
ber of  well-written  forms  may  be  placed  upon  the  board 
by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  called  upon  to  explain 
wherein  their  various  forms  are  incorrect.  The  third 
division  of  the  work  consists  of  the  actual  writing  of 
copies.  This  is  individual  work  rather  than  class  work. 
The  pupil  is  expected  to  put  into  actual  use  what  he  has 
learned  in  the  other  divisions  of  the  work,  and  he  may 
progress  as  rapidly  or  as  slowly  as  his  skill  may  warrant. 
At  all  times  one  need  not  hesitate  to  impress  upon  the 
pupils'  minds,  that  to  write  well  is  an  accomplishment 
of  which  they  may  well  be  proud. 


Chapter  VII 
•  DRAWING 

A  Means  of  Expression.  —  Although  the  curriculum 
for  the  rural  school  is  quite  full,  and  there  are  many 
demands  on  the  teacher's  time,  the  subject  of  drawing 
has  a  valid  claim  for  a  place  on  the  program.  It  is  simply 
another  mode  of  expression,  and  fortmiate  is  he  who  can 
express  himself  in  many  ways.  Few  things  give  more 
pleasure  or  are  of  more  value  than  the  ability  to  express 
one's  self  by  means  of  a  sketch.  To  draw  well,  one  must 
observe  form,  and  to  execute  form,  he  must  train  the 
muscles  to  respond  accurately  just  as  they  are  taught  to 
respond  in  performing  any  other  work. 

Beginning  Early.  —  When  pupils  have  had  no  training 
in  drawing  till  they  are  well  advanced  in  the  grades,  they 
become  selfconscious  and  fe«l  their  limitations,  and  conse- 
quently dislike  the  subject.  If  drawing  is  begun  in  the 
first  grade,  it  is  done  as  a  matter  of  course  the  same  as 
reading,  writing  and  numbers;  and  though  the  first  ef- 
forts are  crude,  yet  they  compare  favorably  with  the 
children's  efforts  in  other  lines  of  work.  If  they  are  led 
to  make  attempts  and  are  not  made  to  believe  that  draw- 
ing is  difficult,  they  will  like  to  express  themselves  in  this 
way.  In  truth,  a  moment's  reflection  will  recall  the  fact 
that  few  are  the  little  people  who  do  not  try  to  draw  long 
before  they  enter  school.  Unfortunately  these  early  ef- 
forts do  not  always  receive  the  encouragement  from  par- 

319 


320  The  Rural  School 

ents  and  teacher  which  they  should;  if,  indeed,  they  are 
not  wholly  repressed. 

If,  then,  drawing  is  so  desirable  a  subject,  the  question 
naturally  arises,  what  shall  be  drawn  and  how?  It  is 
not  the  intention  in  this  chapter  to  go  very  fully  into  the 
"  what "  or  the  "  how,"  but  to  offer  some  suggestions 
showing  the  possibilities  of  the  subject  and  to  urge  its 
claim  for  a  place  on  the  program. 

HOW    TO   BEGIN 

Materials.  —  The  materials  needed  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  much  and  of  good  work  in  drawing  are  few  and 
inexpensive.  Twenty-five  sheets  of  drawing  paper,  white 
or  manila  colored  as  preferred,  a  good  medium  or  a  soft 
drawing  pencil,  and  a  box  of  good  colored  drawing  cray- 
ons, eight  colors  including  the  six  standards  and  brown 
and  black  are  all  the  actual  essentials.  A  good  soft  eraser 
is  convenient  but  should  be  used  sparingly,  and  in  the 
lower  grades  only  by  the  teacher.  Erasing  becomes  a 
habit. 

The  colored  crayons  are  valuable  in  the  design  work, 
and  if  handled  with  care  are  most  effective  in  the  draw- 
ing of  scenes.  Children  delight  in  color,  and  drawings 
done  in  color  appeal  to  them  when  black  and  white  would 
fail  to  do  so.  The  teacher  should  have  knowledge  of  and 
taste  in  color  if  good  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Children 
should  be  taught  to  make  harmonious  combinations  and 
to  use  color  sparingly  so  that  the  results  may  be  delicate 
rather  than  gaudy. 

Point  of  Attack.  —  Teachers  of  drawing  differ  in  both 
the  point  of  attack  and  the  method  of  attacking  the  sub- 
ject; though,  eventually,  they  cover  about  the  same 
ground.    Some  emphasize  line  drawing,  some  mass  draW' 


Drawing  321 

ing.  In  general,  according  to  the  best  authorities  mass 
drawing' seems  preferable;  because  an  object  appears  to 
be  a  solid  and  because  the  desired  form  is,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, a  matter  of  development.  Line  drawing  demands 
more  perfect  muscular  control  and  greater  perfection  of 
form  at  the  very  first.  In  mass  work,  general  form  is  first 
sought  and  then  by  analysis  and  comparison  the  imper- 
fections are  found  and  corrected. 

But,  whether  lines  or  masses  are  used,  sharply  defined, 
hard  lines  as  a  rule  are  to  be  avoided  and  broad  gray  lines 
and  smooth  gray  shading  are  to  be  sought.  To  secure 
this  effect  a  slightly  rough  surface  paper  is  preferable  to  a 
smooth  or  glazed  paper.  Regular  drawing  paper  has  such 
a  surface.  Again,  some  supervisors  begin  work  with  the 
type  forms,  circle,  square,  triangle,  sphere,  etc.,  while 
others  prefer  to  sketch  objects  based  upon  these  forms. 

Use  of  Type  Forms.  —  The  type  forms  are  perfect 
forms  and  are  hard  to  reproduce  and,  if  the  type  form  is 
the  object  to  be  attained,  perfection  must  be  striven  for. 
Also,  the  type  form  is  more  or  less  an  abstraction,  while 
objects  based  on  these  are  more  concrete  and  more  in 
harmony  with  the  child's  life  experiences;  so  they  seem 
a  more  logical  point  of  beginning.  An  apple  or  a  turnip 
is  much  more  easily  reproduced  than  a  ball;  a  carrot 
or  a  long  radish,  more  easily  than  a  cone;  a  log  or  a 
tree,  more  easily  than  a  cylinder,  —  because  the  sides 
do  not  need  to  balance  exactly.  Some  articles  like  vases 
whose  opposite  sides  are  duplicates  are  harder  to  draw 
because  of  this  very  fact.  Consequently  the  unbalanced 
objects  and  those  which  vary  from  the  tj'pe  are  most 
easily  drawn  and  do  not  suffer  greatly  on  account  of 
deviation. 

But  regardless  of  whether  the  drawing  shall  be  that  o^i 
the  type  forms  or  of  objects  based  upon  them,  the  oppor- 


322  The  Rural  School 

tunity  should  not  be  lost  for  actually  studying,  analyzing 
and  comparing  the  real  type  forms  and  developing  their 
characteristics  and  the  terms  applying  to  them.  A  good 
text  defining  and  setting  forth  the  characteristics  of  the 
sphere,  the  cube,  etc.,  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the 
teacher.  With  this  as  a  guide  the  teacher  should  en- 
deavor to  lead  the  pupils  to  get  clear  ideas  of  these  type 
forms  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 

Helping  by  Criticising.  —  One  need  not  hesitate  to 
attenipt  the  more  difficult  forms,  if  he  can  arouse  interest 
and  will  criticise  attempts  carefully  and  without  censure. 
Find  some  good  point,  if  possible,  then  show  where  and 
how  another  point  may  be  improved  greatly,  by  a  very 
slight  change  or  addition.  Then  get  the  child  to  criticise 
his  own  work.  He  cannot  improve  it,  except  by  chance, 
unless  he  can  detect  and  describe  the  defects.  Show  to 
the  whole  school  something  that  has  been  well  done.  A 
drawing  does  not  have  to  be  finished  minutely  in  order 
to  possess  excellence.  If  the  sketch  shows  life  and  char- 
acter, it  is  good  even  though  the  one  executing  it  has  not 
secured  exactly  the  form  and  finish  desired.  Both  of 
these  features  may  be  noted  in  the  criticism.  Much  of 
the  first  work  might  well  consist  of  sketch  work  chiefly, 
striving  for  general  effect,  leaving  perfection  and  minute- 
ness of  detail  till  a  later  period  of  the  work. 

PERSPECTIVE 

Frequently  children  want  to  draw  an  object  as  it  is, 
not  as  it  appears.  For  instance,  in  making  a  box  or  a 
house  all  sides  instead  of  the  possible  ones  are  shown. 
The  number  and  faces  of  an  object  to  be  drawn  depend 
wholly  upon  its  position  with  respect  to  the  observer. 
The  following  drawing  illustrates  this  well. 


FIG.  B. 


Drawing 

FIG.  A. 


\  ■  / 


323 


FIG.C. 


FIG.D. 


V  FIC.B'. 


\FIG./f. 


FIG.E. 


HORIZON 


LINE 


VANISHING^ 
POINT      FisiK- 


PI'G.F  / 


FIG.G.\ 

rjn-T\ 


'.FIG.H.^ 
fv V 


AN    ILLUSTRATION    OF    PERSPECTIVE 


All  figures  A — H'  represent  the  same  object,  an  almost 
cubical  block,  in  fifteen  positions  which  it  might  easily 
occupy  in  respect  to  a  stationary  observer  whose  eye 
is  at  some  point  on  the  line  1-2,  in  front  of  Fig.  G  and 
equally  distant  between  Figures  A  and  G. 

Fig.  A  is  directly  in  front  of  and  somewhat  above  the 
observer's  eye. 

Fig.  G  is  equally  distant  in  front  of  and  as  far  below 
the  eye  as  Fig.  A  is  above  it. 

Fig.  C  and  Fig.  B  are  equally  distant  with  A  above  the 
eye  but  C  is  as  far  to  the  right  as  B  is  to  the  left. 


324  The  Rural  School 

Figures  F  and  H  are  as  far  below  the  eye  as  Fig.  G  or 
as  far  below  as  A  is  above  and  they  occupy  the  same 
relative  positions  below  the  eye  as  B  and  C,  respectively, 
occupy  above  it. 

Figures  B,  C,  F  and  H  each  present  three  sides  to  the 
observer  and  are  equally  distant  from  Vanishing  Point. 

Figures  D  and  E  are  equally  distant  from  the  Vanishing 
Point  on  the  left  and  the  right,  respectively,  both  are  in 
front  of  eye  and  they  extend  equally  above  and  below  the 
horizon  line  which  cuts  their  front  faces.  Therefore 
they  are  on  a  level  with  the  eye  and  neither  their  tops  nor 
their  bottoms  are  seen  and  they  present  but  two  faces. 

If  the  figure  were  directly  in  front  of  the  eye  as  well  as 
on  the  same  level,  a  single  face  would  be  seen. 

Stating  relations  and  positions  in  another  way:  Figures 
C,  E  and  H  are  all  the  same  distance  to  the  observer's 
right  of  the  Vanishing  Point.  C  is  above  eye,  E  on  a 
level  with  it  and  H  below  it. 

Figures  B,  D  and  F  occupy  corresponding  positions, 
respectively,  on  the  left  of  the  observer. 

Figures  B,  A  and  C  are  all  equally  distant  above  the 
eye  and  to  the  left,  directly  in  front  of  it,  and  to  the  right 
of  it,  respectively. 

Figures  F,  G  and  H  occupy  corresponding  positions, 
respectively,  below  the  eye. 

Figures  A'  to  H'  are  the  same  figures,  respectively,  at 
a  considerably  greater  distance  from  the  observer,  that 
is,  much  nearer  the  horizon  line  and  the  Vanishing  Point; 
therefore  they  have  seemingly  decreased  in  size,  corre- 
spondingly. The  fact  that  the  vanishing  lines  pass 
through  the  same  corresponding  points  indicates  that  the 
loss  of  size  is  due  to  greater  distance  and  not  to  any 
actual  change,  for,  all  parallel  lines  of  similar  figures  be- 
tween any  two  vanishing  lines  are  equal. 


Drawing  325 

SCENE    DRAWING 

Some  Principles.  —  Little  scenes  are  good  drawing 
exercises;  for,  even  though  the  child  does  not  reproduce 
the  copy  exactly,  he  still  has  a  "  picture  "  and  is  pleased 
with  it.  Scenes  involve  and  easily  illustrate  the  laws  of 
perspective  drawing.  Some  of  the  important  ones  of 
these  are:  All  lines  that  are  vertical  in  the  object  must 
be  made  so  in  the  drawing.  Illustrate  the  principle  by 
making  some  rough  dramngs,  a  fence,  a  tree,  a  house;  by 
showing  that  the  fence  post  that  is  showTi  by  an  oblique 
line  is  a  leaning  post,  so,  unless  that  is  what  one  wishes 
to  represent,  he  must  not  draw  it  in  this  way.  Receding 
parallel  lines  converge  and,  if  extended  far  enough,  will 
finally  meet  at  a  point  called  the  vanishing  point.  Conse- 
quently, objects  at  a  distance  are  drawn  much  smaller 
than  other  objects  of  the  same  size  in  the  foreground. 
Even  a  little  child  may  comprehend  this  law  if  his  atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  fact  that,  if  a  man  is  near  him,  he 
is  seen  his  full  size;  but,  if  the  man  is  far  doAvn  the  level 
road,  he  is  not  seen  larger  than  a  boy,  though  he  has  not 
changed  in  size.  A  few  simple  lines  will  illustrate  this 
law  and  the  one  for  vertical  lines  also.  A  road,  a  line  of 
trees,  a  fence,  or  a  row  of  telegraph  poles,  furnish  material 
for  the  lesson. 

The  same  scenes  may  be  made  in  pencil  and  in  colors. 
A  picture  may  be  made  in  different  tones  of  one  color  or 
of  black  or  in  different  colors.  Some  initial  practice 
should  be  given  to  secure  and  appreciate  the  color  tones 
or  color  scale. 

The  scene  shown  in  the  accompamdng  illustration  might 
be  colored  as  follows:  —  a  pale  j'^ellow,  wintry  sun,  dark 
evergreen  shrubbery  in  distance,  or  it  might  be  snow 
covered,  snowy  foreground  with  slight  yellow  cast,  gray- 


326 


The  Rural  School 


A   aCENE   UNI    THKEE    TOKES 


ish  ice  on  pond,  yeHowish  gray  or  pale  blue  sky.  Almost 
any  scene  may  be  worked  out  in  tones  of  any  desired  one 
color. 

Suggestive  Drawings  for  the  Different  Months 

September:  Grasses,  goldenrod,  sunflower,  corn  stalks, 
asters,  trees,  cat-tails,  hunting  scene. 

October:  Autumn  leaves,  such  as  oak,  elm,  sumac, 
maple;  thistle;  nuts;  fruits  and  vegetables;  Hallowe'en 
ideas,  such  as,  Jack  o'  lanterns,  brownies,  black  cats, 
witches;   Colum})us  pictures;   Autumn  scenes. 

November:  Fruits  and  vegetables,  ears  of  corn,  geese, 
turkeys,  Indian  and  Pilgrim  objects  or  scenes. 


Drawing  327 

December:  Trees  in  winter  aspect;  cut  snow  crystals; 
draw  snow  man;  sleds;  children  rolling  snowball;  coast- 
ing scenes;  Christmas  ideas,  such  as,  trees,  toys,  stock- 
ings, Santa  Claus,  fireplace,  reindeer,  camels,  holly  bells, 
etc. 

January:  Snow  scenes  and  objects  as  in  December; 
Eskimo  huts;  dog  teams;  seal;  reindeer;  an  Arctic 
scene. 

February:  Make  and  decorate  valentines;  draw  ob- 
jects suggestive  of  Colonial  times,  of  Washington  and 
Lincoln  and  of  any  patriotic  idea. 

March:  Birds,  branches  and  buds,  and  earliest  spring 
plant  forms,  tulips,  iris,  etc;  Dutch  windmill,  kites,  etc., 
suggesting  winds. 

April:  Easter  suggestions:  rabbits,  chickens,  eggs, 
lilies;  leaf  and  flower  forms  as  they  appear  in  nature; 
scenes  suggesting  rains  and  spring  occupations. 

May:  Spring  scenes,  flowers,  etc.,  similar  to  April; 
butterflies,  birds'  nests,  etc.;  boys  with  fishing  poles, 
picnic  parties,  etc.;   May  basket  decorations. 

Illustrating  Stories.  —  Children  sometimes  like  to  il- 
lustrate stories  told  to  them,  or  a  paragraph  from  a 
reading  lesson.  The  following  story  is  given  as  an 
example: 

Willie  Goes  Fishing 

One  day  Willie's  mother  told  him  that,  since  he  had 
worked  so  well  all  the  week,  he  might  go  fishing.  She  put 
up  a  basket  of  lunch,  for  she  knew  he  would  get  hungry. 
Willie  took  his  pole  and  line  and  a  can  of  bait,  gave 
the  basket  of  lunch  to  Skip,  his  dog,  to  carry  and  set  out 
for  his  favorite  fishing  hole.  His  mother  watched  him 
till  he  had  crossed  a  little  stream  on  a  foot  log,  climbed 
up  a  steep  hill,  and  disappeared  on  the  other  side,  then 


328 


The  Rural  School 


A  child's  drawing  for  the  fishing  story,    nos.  1-2 


A  child's  drawing  for  the  fishing  story,    nos.  3^ 


she  went  back  to  her  work,  hoping  that  WilHe  would  have 
a  good  time  and  that  nothing  would  happen  to  him. 

After  a  while  Willie  saw  two  large  birds  flying  above 
a  tall  pine  tree  and  he  sat  down  to  watch  them  for  a  few 
minutes,  but  the  next  thing  he  knew  he  awoke  to  find 
himself  lying  upon  the  ground  with  his  bait  can  empty 
beside  him  and  Skip  eating  the  last  bite  of  the  lunch.  As 
it  was  growing  late,  he  laughed  at  the  joke  he  had  played 


Drawing  329 

on  himself  and  said  to  his  dog,  "  Well,  you  might  have 
left  me  the  crumbs,  at  least.  I  should  have  done  that  for 
you.  I  think  I  do  not  care  to  go  fishing,  anyway,  so  let 
us  go  home." 

PAPER-  CUTTING  AND  DESIGN 

An  occupation  closely  related  to  drawing  is  that  of 
freehand  paper-cutting.  This  work  is  one  that  gives  the 
pupils  pleasure  as  well  as  excellent  practice  in  seeing  form 
with  the  mind's  eye  and  then  executing  that  form  by 
means  of  the  scissors  without  the  aid  of  lines.  The  phys- 
ical eye  must  follow  the  mental  outline  and  the  muscles 
must  be  taught  to  work  in  harmony  with  both.  Again, 
the  equipment  is  simple,  nothing  but  scissors  and  plain 
paper  of  any  kind  is  absolutely  essential.  The  scissors 
present  the  greater  difficulty;  for  it  is  not  always  conve- 
nient to  have  these  brought  from  home,  but  good  school 
scissors  with  the  round  points  may  be  had  for  fifteen 
cents  or  less.  Fifty  cents  or  a  dollar  spent  for  scissors 
would  pay  a  high  rate  of  interest. 

Applications.  — ■  Paper-cutting  may  be  applied  in  the 
illustration  of  reading  lessons  or  stories  such  as,  "  The 
Three  Bears,"  "  Ulysses  and  the  Winds,"  "  Chicken 
Little,"  etc.;  in  illustrating  events  of  particular  interest 
as,  The  Circus,  the  study  of  the  Pilgrims,  the  depar- 
ture or  return  of  the  birds;  in  representing  fruits,  vege- 
tables, autumn  leaves,  etc.,  —  by  using  colored  papers 
these  are  made  more  realistic,  ^  and  common  household 
articles,  such  as  bowls,  cups,  vases,  hats,  boots,  hatchets, 
and  so  forth. 

Snow  crystals,  cut  from  paper,  as  well  as  flower  and 
bird  forms  may  be  used  as  decorations  for  home-made 
valentines,  Christmas  or  Easter  cards,  book  covers;  and 
the  crystals  whole  or  divided  into  their  units  as  decora- 


MHlH 


ILLUSTRATIONS   CUT   FROM    PAPER 


[330] 


1W 


:v 


SOME  PAPER-CUTTINGS  MADE   BY    CHILDREN 


[331] 


332 


The  Rural  School 


APPLICATIONS   OF    CUT-WORK   DESIGNS 


tions  for  cardboard  construction  workboxes,  letter  cases, 
and  so  forth. 

Larger  cut  designs  may  be  converted  into  posters  ap- 
propriate to  the  various  holidays,  such  as  Hallowe'en, 
Thanksgiving,  Arbor  Day,  etc. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  are  suggestions  both  for 
paper-cutting  and  the  regular  drawing  work  as  mentioned 
in  various  places  in  this  article.  A  number  of  these  are 
actual  cuttings  made  by  the  pupils  in  a  rural  school. 

Conventional  Designs.  —  While  speaking  of  paper- 
cutting,  mention  may  be  made  of  forms  cut  from  folded 
paper  to  produce  a  repetition  of  units  about  a  center  or 
in  rows.  Take  a  square,  fold  on  both  diameters  and, 
without  opening,  fold  on  a  diagonal  from  the  inner 
folded  point  of  square  to  opposite  outer  corner,  and  cut 
in  any  form  desired,  merely  leaving  connecting  points 
between  the  units.  Cut  on  curved  lines.  No  lines  are 
used  in  the  actual  work.  This  produces  four  units  about 
a  center. 


Drawing 


333 


CUTTING   A   DESIGN 


Long  strips  folded  together  into  squares  and  then 
folded  again  on  the  vertical  diameter  or  on  a  diagonal 
will  give  the  units  in  rows,  if  a  connecting  portion  is  left 
uncut  at  the  sides.  This  form  of  cutting  develops  the 
inventive  faculty.  In  the  actual  business  world  such 
designs  are  employed  in  the  figures  of  carpets,  wall  paper, 
oii  cloth,  woven  goods,  and  for  many  such  purposes.  In 
the  schoolroom  applications  of  them  may  be  made  by 
using  them  for  forming  designs  for  book  covers,  port- 
folios, pillow  tops,  etc.  To  see  that  they  have  use  gives 
dignity  to  an  occupation  which  otherwise  some  might 
look  upon  as  mere  child's  play.  Mention  of  these  uses 
should  be  made  even  though  no  application  of  them  is 
attempted. 

Design  work  calls  for  exact  repetition  and  for  conven- 
tional forms  of  either  geometrical  or  natural  objects  as 
illustrated  in  the  borders  Nos.  1  to  6  on  page  335.  Little 
people  may  be  allowed  to  make  designs  by  laying  card- 
board tablets  -  circles,  squares,  oblongs,  diamonds, 
etc.,  —  upon  sheets  of  paper  and  then  tracing  around 
them.  They  may  then  be  shaded  or  colored,  if  desired 
Work  requiring  accurate  measurements  is  not  well  suited 


334 


The  Rural  School 


K.-^^^^^^ 


»i9f 


^& 


SOME  PTNISHED  DESIGNS 

to  little  children,  but  aside  from  this,  they  may  attempt 
almost  anything  the  older  ones  do.  It  is  all  the  more 
necessary  in  rural  schools  to  choose  work  that  can  be 
done  by  the  pupils  all  together,  because  the  time  which 
may  be  devoted  to  such  work  does  not  permit  of  much 
division.  Some  of  the  older  ones  may  be  given  exer- 
cises in  simple  cardboard  construction  in  which  the 
patterns  are  drawn  to  given  dimensions.  The  lower 
grades  may  do  construction  work,  making  small  arti- 
cles like  boxes,  chairs,  tables,  carts,  cupboards,  wall 
pockets,  etc.,  by  folding  papers  into  small  squares,  fold- 
ing and  pasting  according  to  the  teacher's  directions, 
using  the  creases  made  by  the  folding  as  guide  lines. 
Pencils  and  measures  are  both  unnecessary.  This  work 
is  easy  and  a  number  of  books  containing  the  necessary 
directions  are  to  be  obtained  at  a  cost  of  anjrwhere 
from  twenty-five  cents  to  one  dollar. 


JiJUflTI 


Tla  I 


Tto% 


no- 3 


I 


m 


Dfustii 
IhxS 


VfldjJTV 
Tlofa 


SOME  SUGGESTED   DESIGNS  FOR   BORDERS 

1335] 


336  The  Rural  School 

A  Final  Word.  —  Finally  since  this  chapter  is  merely 
meant  to  be  suggestive  and  in  no  way  an  exhaustive  treat- 
ment of  the  subject,  it  will  have  accomplished  its  end, 
if  it  has  created  interest  in  the  subject,  and  shown  that 
it  has  a  place  in  a  complete  educational  scheme;  that  it 
has  its  utilities  as  well  as  its  aesthetic  side;  that  it  may 
serve  to  add  interest  to  other  school  subjects;  that  its 
value  as  a  mental  stimulus  is  of  no  small  weight,  demand- 
ing, as  it  does,  close  observation,  keen  analysis,  careful 
synthesis,  and  constructive  imagination;  that  it  is  so 
varied  that  it  should  never  cease  to  interest;  that  it  may 
be  adapted  to  the  ability  of  the  most  unskilled  person  or 
to  that  of  him  who  has  unusual  artistic  ability;  and  last 
and  most  important,  that  this  work  is  not  beyond  the 
ability  or  power  of  the  teacher  who  is  willing  to  make  the 
same  effort  she  makes  in  other  lines  of  work  and  who  will 
equip  herself  with  some  one  or  more  of  the  excellent 
series  of  drawing  textbooks  which  are  in  the  market. 


Chapter    Vm 
MUSIC 

IMPORTANCE 

At  the  present  time  when  so  many  subjects  are  clamor- 
ing for  attention  in  our  school  program  it  is  well  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  school  should  not  merely  enable  the 
pupils  to  earn  a  livelihood  but  it  should  also  prepare 
them  to  get  the  most  from  life  after  a  livelihood  has  been 
attained.  Good  or  bad  citizenship  is  very  largely  de- 
termined by  the  manner  in  which  the  members  of  a  com- 
munity occupy  the  hours  when  they  are  not  at  work. 

If  we  take  into  account  the  fact  that  in  the  rural 
schools  the  boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  not  only 
reading,  writing  and  kindred  subjects  but  also  those 
things  which  will  form  their  diversions  in  the  years  to 
come,  the  importance  of  music  in  the  school  will  be  better 
appreciated. 

In  the  vast  majority  of  schools,  teachers  are  content 
with  only  a  limited  amount  of  song  singing  or  with  no 
music  at  all.  Class  work  in  music  is  rarely  attempted. 
This  is  often  due  to  a  lack  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  as  well  as  to  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  re- 
sults that  may  be  obtained.  Practical  experience  has 
proven  that  a  daily  music  period  is  perfectly  possible  for 
every  school.  This  may  be  made  productive  of  very 
definite  results  and  at  the  same  time  afford  an  agreeable 
relaxation  for  the  pupils  and  teacher. 

337 


338  The  Rural  School 

EQUIPMENT 

The  Textbook.  —  The  question  of  a  textbook  will  be 
determined  by  conditions  and  the  teacher's  choice.  A 
one-book  course  in  which  there  is  much  work  on  the 
simple  problems  is  best  suited  to  rural  school  conditions. 
There  should  be  an  introduction  of  the  bass  clef  and  a 
glossary  of  the  ordinary  musical  terms.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  copies  of  the  textbook  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  pupils  if  possible. 

Use  of  Blackboard.  —  A  resourceful  teacher  can  make 
good  use  of  the  blackboard.  If  there  is  room  a  painted 
staff  enables  the  teacher  to  present  many  simple  melo- 
dies. On  such  a  staff  the  spacing  between  the  lines  should 
be  not  less  than  an  inch  and  a  quarter  apart.  If  the 
blackboard  space  is  limited,  a  staff  liner  may  be  used. 
This  is  a  device  which  holds  five  pieces  of  crayon,  so  that 
a  staff  can  be  drawn  with  one  movement  of  the  hand,  or, 
by  holding  a  piece  of  crayon  between  the  first  and  second 
and  another  between  the  second  and  third  fingers  a  staff 
may  be  drawn  with  three  instead  of  five  strokes.  Do  not 
make  notes  by  filling  in  "  o."  Take  a  third  piece  of 
crayon  and  rub  this  on  the  board  until  the  side  is  worn 
flat.  A  downward  stroke  of  this  flat  surface  will  make  a 
square  note  head. 

Use  of  the  Pitch  Pipe.  —  If  no  instrument  is  in  the 
schoolroom,  the  teacher  should  purchase  a  pitch  pipe. 
The  most  serviceable  is  one  giving  all  the  tones  of  the 
scale,  commonly  known  as  a  chromatic  pitch  pipe.  If  a 
"  C  "  pipe  is  used,  the  beginning  tones  of  the  common 
keys  may  be  found  as  shown  in  the  table  on  the  follow- 
ing page. 

The  Non-Singing  Teacher.  — -  For  the  teacher  who  does 
not  sing  it  is  encouraging  to  remember  that  listening  is 


Music 


339 


TABLE    SHOWING    HOW    TO    FIND    BEGINNING    TONES    OF   OTHER    KEYS 

BY    MEANS    OF    "  C  "    PIPE 


KEY    OF 

IN  SCALE  OF 
C  SING 

IN  NEW  KEY  CALL  IT 

G  —     « 

Sol 

Doo 

I)  —  u 

Re 

Doo 

A  —  WJ* 

La 

Doo 

E  — JStU 

Mi 

Doo 

KEY    OF 

SOUND  C  AND 
CALL  IT 

F  —      b 

Sol 

Sing   to   Doo   in 
new  key 

Bb—    bb 

Re 

Eb—  !?bb 

La 

Ab— bbbb 

Mi 

one  of  the  most  important  and  difficult  points  to  be  mas- 
tered by  the  teacher.  A  teacher's  abihty  to  sing  well 
often  retards  the  children.  She  helps  so  much  that  the 
children  camiot  learn.  The  non-singing  teacher  should 
know  the  correct  sounds  when  they  are  given.  Rhythm 
is  more  difficult  to  teach  than  tone  and  that  can  be  mas- 
tered even  by  one  who  is  tone  deaf.  In  the  vast  majority 
of  cases  lack  of  ability  on  the  part  of  a  teacher  often 
means  merely  lack  of  effort  and  persistence.  In  case  a 
teacher  positively  cannot  sing  the  simplest  exercises,  she 
can  find  a  boy  or  girl  who  has  a  keen  recognition  of  the 
different  pitches  and  appoint  him  as  critic  or  referee. 
Often  this  honor  may  be  passed  around.  Not  infre- 
quently, the  class  as  a  whole  may  be  depended  upon  to 
note  the  errors  that  may  occur.  This  is  always  true  when 
the  previous  work  has  been  thoroughly  mastered.  A 
teacher  whose  limitations  are  merely  vocal  should  not 
allow  this  to  prevent  the  boys  and  girls  under  her  care 
from  enjoying   the  privilege  of  music  study,   however 


340  The  Rural  School 

elementary  this  may  be.  A  large  number  of  rural  schools 
possess  organs  and  these  are  of  even  more  service  than  a 
piano  in  the  ordinary  school.  In  deahng  with  monotones, 
the  sustained  tone  from  a  particular  key  on  the  organ 
aids  wonderfully  in  bringing  the  children's  voices  to  the 
same  pitch. 

TEACHING    IN    GROUPS 

In  the  ordinary  one-room  school  the  pupils  very  natu- 
rally divide  into  three  groups,  each  of  which  can  follow  a 
distinct  line  of  work  in  music:  Group  One,  a  group  in 
song  singing.  This  will  ordinarily  include  the  first  three 
grades.  Group  Two,  a  group  in  note  reading,  is  composed 
of  grades  four,  five  and  six.  Group  Three,  a  group 
including  the  remaining  grades,  takes  up  the  theory 
of  music.  With  this  arrangement,  each  group  may  de- 
rive benefit  from  hearing  the  recitation  of  the  other  groups. 

The  following  plan  is  merely  suggestive  and  should  be 
shaped  by  the  teacher  to  meet  conditions.  Set  aside  the 
first  fifteen  minutes  after  the  noon  recess  for  the  music 
period.  This  will  be  found  more  satisfactory  than  at- 
tempting to  combine  instruction  with  the  devotional  ex- 
ercise in  the  morning.  A  special  seating  is  usually  de- 
sirable. A  good  plan  is  to  have  Group  One  in  the  front 
seats,  Group  Two  back  of  them  and  Group  Three  in  the 
rear.  If  the  pupils  in  the  third  group  do  not  sing  well  it 
may  be  wiser  to  seat  the  groups  in  rows  from  the  front 
to  the  back  of  the  room.  The  recitation  period  of  Group 
One  may  be  Monday  and  Wednesday;  Group  Two,  Tues- 
day and  Thursday,  and  Friday  may  be  wholly  given  to 
Group  Three.  Written  work  and  study  may  occupy  this 
last  group  for  their  second  recitation  on  one  of  the  days 
when  group  one  or  two  is  singing. 


Music  341 

Rote  Singing.  —  Group  One  should  include  the  pupils 
of  lower  grades,  and  by  means  of  songs  and  rhythm  games 
the  foundation  should  be  laid  for  the  note  reading  to  be 
done  in  Group  Two.  Some  of  the  beginners,  if  not  all,  will 
require  individual  attention.  In  dealing  with  the  so-called 
monotones,  first  learn  if  they  can  observe  a  difference  in 
pitch  of  various  tones.  Next  let  them  sing  in  unison 
single  tones  and  simple  melodies.  If  a  child  after  repeated 
efforts  will  not  take  the  pitch  given,  use  his  starting  tone 
as  a  beginning  and  call  it  "  doo."  The  principal  difficulty 
with  children  who  can  recognize  pitch  but  do  not  imitate 
different  pitches  readily  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have 
not  learned  to  properly  use  the  so-called  head  voice. 
Light  quality  of  tone  and  the  sound  of  ''  oo  "  are  condu- 
cive to  this  sort  of  production.  It  is  often  easier  for  such 
children  to  sing  an  upper  tone  and  then  sing  doAvn  the 
scale.  "  E  "  in  the  fourth  space  of  the  soprano  clef  is  a 
safe  starting  tone. 

In  the  selection  of  song  material  the  teacher  should  see 
to  it  that  the  words  are  within  the  comprehension  of  the 
children.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  that  the  music 
be  extremely  simple.  The  teacher  should  search  through 
all  available  songs  and  should  include  songs  of  nature, 
songs  that  illustrate  the  every-day  affairs  of  life,  those 
that  deal  with  special  vocations  as  well  as  those  suitable 
for  all  of  the  national  holidays.  All  publishers  of  music 
and  music  books  for  schools  issue  sheet  music,  called 
"  supplementary  music  for  schools,"  at  a  very  low  cost. 
Before  presenting  a  song  the  teacher  should  carefully 
study  the  meaning  of  the  words;  he  should  note  the  em- 
phatic words  and  pauses  and  should  see  in  imagination 
the  things  which  the  song  suggests.  Go  over  the  melody 
very  carefully  in  preparation.  Any  error  in  the  first  pre- 
sentation is  hard  to  correct.    In  teaching  a  song  by  rote, 


342  The  Rural  School 

that  is,  by  imitation,  sing  the  whole  song  through;  then 
sing  the  first  phrase  and  let  the  children  sing  after  you; 
similarly  the  second  phrase,  etc.  Children  will  learn  by 
imitation  many  melodies  that  they  might  not  be  able  to 
read  after  several  years'  training. 

Marching  songs,  songs  which  have  a  strong  accent  and 
rhythm  and  games  should  be  used  for  the  development 
of  the  feeling  of  rhythm.  Clapping  in  time  with  the  ac- 
cent exercises  is  valuable  in  this  comiection.  After  the 
children  have  learned  a  number  of  songs,  select  some  of 
the  simpler  ones  and  teach  the  syllable  names  as  an  addi- 
tional verse.  Do  this  with  eight  or  ten  songs;  also  use 
scale  songs  of  fifteen  words  or  syllables  sung  to  the  as- 
cending and  descending  melody  of  the  scale,  e.  g.,  "  See 
the  soldiers  marching  gaily  keeping  step  with  fife  and 
drum," 

Good  rote  songs  will  be  found  in  any  of  the  following 
books: 

"  Songs  of  the  Child  World  "  by  Jessie  L.  Gaynor. 
Books  1  and  2. 

''  Song  Development  for  Little  Children  "  by  Ripley 
and  Heartz. 

"  Small  Songs  for  Small  Singers  "  by  Neidlinger. 

"  The  Song  Primer  "  b}'"  Alys  Bentley. 

"  Children's  Old  and  New  Singing  Games  "  by  Marie 
Hofer. 

"  Popular  Folk  Dances  "  by  Marie  Hofer. 

"  Art  Song  Cycles  "  by  Miessner. 

Sight  Singing.  —  Group  Two  should  utilize  the  knowl- 
edge gained  in  Group  One.  If  music  is  being  introduced 
for  the  first  time  some  of  the  work,  including  the  rhythm 
drill,  that  is,  exercises  to  develop  the  feeling  for  the  ac- 
cent in  music,  and  memorizing  of  syllables  will  have  to 
be  done  before  note  reading  is  attempted.    All  the  exer- 


Music  343 

cises  and  songs  used  for  sight  reading  should  be  extremely 
simple.  In  no  other  phase  of  the  work  is  the  adage,  ''  not 
how  much  but  how  well,"  more  applicable.  The  children 
in  this  group  should  learn  the  recognition  of  the  different 
signatures  but  simply  as  a  means  of  knowing  where  1, 
that  is  the  "  doo  "  of  the  scale  is  located.  To  explain  the 
whys  of  scale  construction  to  this  group  is  a  waste  of 
valuable  time.  A  very  simple  rule  which  any  child  can 
follow  is  to  count  up  one  line  or  space  from  the  last  sharp 
and  down  two  lines  and  a  space  or  two  spaces  and  a  line 
from  the  last  flat  and  this  will  locate  8  or  1  oi  the  scale. 
Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  last,  that  is  the  right- 
hand  sharp  is  on  "  Ti  "  and  the  right-hand  flat  is  on 
"  Faw."  In  this  group  spend  practically  all  the  time  in 
sight  reading.  When  an  error  occurs,  ask  the  class  to 
sing  the  scale  tones  or  an  easy  skip  which  will  make  the 
matter  easier.  Fix  in  the  minds  of  the  children  the  fact 
that  the  important  tones  are  1,  3,  5,  and  8  and  let  them 
think  of  4  as  tending  toward  3,  7  toward  8,  2  toward  1, 
etc.  —  the  numbers  referring  of  course  to  the  syllables 
of  the  scale.  When  an  error  reveals  a  weakness  on  the 
part  of  the  class  in  singing  a  particular  interval  or  in 
understanding  a  time  problem,  drill  then  and  there  on 
this  point  mitil  it  is  mastered. 

The  foremost  aim  in  this  phase  of  the  work  is  the  de- 
velopment of  'power  on  the  part  of  the  children.  This 
requires  real  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  While 
an  exercise  should  not  be  carelessly  read,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  go  over  every  exercise  until  each  child  can  do  it 
"  letter-perfect."  The  reason  for  this  is  that  after  a 
certain  number  of  repetitions  the  singing  of  the  tones 
as  they  occur  in  the  particular  exercise  becomes  mere 
memory  work.  Drill  to  correct  errors  but  keep  as  your 
goal  the  reading  of  similar  exercises  —  the  development 


344  The  Rural  School 

of  power.  Do  not  give  the  children  more  than  one  thing 
at  a  time  to  master.  If  an  exercise  brings  a  problem  that 
is  new,  either  in  time  or  tune,  prepare  for  this  by  imita- 
tion. Present  all  things  for  the  first  time  by  imitation. 
"  Sing  it.  Name  it.  Represent  it,"  is  good  pedagogy  in 
the  teaching  of  music.  Do  not  confuse  the  children  by 
explaining  things  that  they  cannot  do.  The  aim  of  all 
the  work  in  Group  Two  is  the  independent  note  reading 
of  simple  exercises.  Reserve  the  "  whys  and  where- 
fores "  for  Group  Three.  Spend  your  time  on  the  things 
which  the  children  will  meet  most  commonly.  If  by  the 
time  they  have  finished  the  work  in  this  group  they  can 
read  the  music  in  the  church  hymnal,  the  teacher  has 
done  all  that  can  be  expected  and  has  prepared  them  for 
an  appreciation  of  the  next  group's  work. 

In  teaching  time  or  "  rhythm,"  as  it  is  called,  make 
sure  that  the  children  recognize  the  different  notes  that 
go  to  make  up  a  beat  or  "  pulse."  Then  see  to  it  that 
they  make  every  pulse  clear  and  distinct.  In  singing  a 
half  note  in  quarter  measure  teach  them  to  think  of  it 
as  two  quarter  notes  tied  (Doo-oo)  and  "  pulse  "  or  em- 
phasize each  one,  by  repeating  the  vowel  with  emphasis 
for  the  second  one.  Later  when  they  sing  two  tones  to  a 
beat,  as  two  eighths  to  a  pulse  in  quarter  measure,  the 
regular  accent  of  the  beats  will  be  best  felt  by  singing  the 
second  tone  much  lighter.  In  the  "  catch  note,"  as 
represented  by  the  dotted  quarter  and  the  eighth,  pulse 
strongly,  that  is  sing  with  stress  by  repeating  the  vowel, 
the  beat  that  occurs  on  the  dot  (e.  g.,  Doo-oo-Doo). 

In  all  phases  of  sight  reading  it  is  important  —  so  im- 
portant that  it  cannot  be  overemphasized  —  that  the 
children  should  be  taught  to  recite  individually  as  in  any 
other  subject.  This  will  require  tact  but  is  a  sure  way 
to  obtain  definite  results.     Preparations  may  be  made 


Music  345 

for  this  by  way  of  individual  singing  in  Group  One  and 
by  dividing  the  class  into  threes  and  twos  in  the  sight 
reading  work.  Competition  always  engenders  interest 
and  encourages  effort.  Appoint  two  captains.  Let  them 
"  choose  sides  "  and  "  spell  doAvn  "  in  music  reading.  Let 
each  side  read  as  a  whole;  then  assign  very  simple  exer- 
cises for  the  captains  to  read  and  then  the  individual 
members  in  turn,  alternating  one  side  and  then  the  other. 
If  the  opposing  side  detects  the  error,  and  the  next  singer 
does  the  exercise  correctly  let  them  choose  from  those 
who  have  been  seated  through  failure  if  it  is  desired  to 
prolong  the  contest.  This  plan  has  often  been  the  means 
of  inducing  strenuous  effort  on  the  part  of  otherwise 
timid  or  stubborn  pupils.  Occasionally  some  additional 
members  may  be  chosen  from  Group  Three,  if  they  are 
possessed  of  about  the  same  degree  of  ability.  This  may 
form  the  basis  of  a  more  elaborate  contest  which  will 
afford  a  very  entertaining  evening  for  the  parents,  from 
whom  judges  may  be  selected.  This  has  the  important 
advantage  of  demonstrating  a  practical  value  in  what 
some  consider  a  subject  that  is  cultural  only. 

In  the  use  of  syllables,  better  tone  quality  will  be  ob- 
tained if  the  broader  vowel  sounds  are  employed  as 
"  Doo,"  "  Sool,"  "  Faw,"  "  Law."  The  Miessner  Music- 
Motif  Cards  provide  a  way  by  which  the  pupils  could 
learn  to  read  music  mth  rapiditj^  and  intelligence. 

Theory  Study.  —  In  Group  Three  the  time  should  be 
largely  devoted  to  the  so-called  "  theory."  If  the  pupils 
can  sing,  however,  their  recitation  period  on  Friday  can 
well  be  devoted  to  part  singing  and  more  advanced  sight 
reading.  The  other  day  when  they  have  music  at  the 
same  time  as  one  of  the  other  groups  they  may  do  written 
work,  or  work  in  cooperation  with  Group  Two  by  writing 
certain  definitions,  scales,  etc.,  that  occur  during  the  les- 


346  The  Rural  School 

son.  The  ground  covered  in  these  grades  will  include  the 
following  entirely  or  in  part: 

An  understanding  of  all  kinds  of  measure;  the  different 
scales,  major  and  minor;  the  "  intermediate  "  tones  — 
those  between  the  regular  scale  tones;  the  commonly- 
occurring  musical  terms  employed  to  mark  expression; 
familiarity  with  the  bass  or  F  clef.  Advanced  students 
in  this  group  may  be  assigned  the  task  of  writing  exer- 
cises for  Group  Two  to  read  and,  when  possible,  the  recog- 
nition of  intervals  sung  incorrectly  may  be  required. 

Group  Three  will  perhaps  include  a  wider  variety  of 
pupils  than  any  other.  Some  who  are  entirely  miable  to 
do  the  sight  reading  may  be  advanced  into  this  group 
from  Group  Two.  This  should  be  done  only  after  this 
inability  is  clearly  established.  Such  pupils  who  have 
come  up  through  Group  Two  may  be  enabled  by  the 
additional  knowledge  to  work  ahead  of  the  class  in  the 
matter  of  sight  reading.  In  the  upper  grades  the  rudi- 
ments of  music  should  be  thoroughly  studied  and  their 
application,  whenever  possible,  observed  in  the  work  of 
the  lower  grades.  Pupils  going  from  rural  schools  with 
this  preparation  are  well  qualified  to  enter  the  County 
High  School,  where  they  will  readily  acquire  ability  in 
advanced  sight  reading  as  a  result  of  their  practice  in 
Groups  One  and  Two  in  note  singing  and  sight  singing 
and  their  theory  study  in  Group  Three. 

If  music  is  just  being  introduced,  deal  with  Group  One 
as  suggested  above;  include  in  Group  Three  all  above 
the  third  grade  who  carniot  sing;  the  rest  will  constitute 
Group  Two.  Before  starting  this  last  group  on  sight 
reading,  it  will  be  necessary  to  do  some  of  the  preparatory 
singing  —  which  should  have  been  done  already  had 
Group  One  been  in  existence  —  also  the  memorizing  of 
the  syllables  to  several  songs  and  singing  of  scale  songs. 


Music  347 

Tone  Quality  and  Breathing  Exercises.  —  In  all  the 
work  in  music  the  matter  of  tone  quality  should  be 
thought  of.  At  the  begimiing  of  the  music  period  two 
minutes,  taken  for  breathing  and  tone  drill,  will  be  time 
well  spent.  Teach  the  children  to  respond  with  soldier- 
like promptness:  1,  "  Stand  "  (heels  together,  hands  at 
the  sides,  head  erect,  shoulders  back  and  chin  in) ;  '2,  "  Po- 
sition "  (hands  on  the  hips,  fingers  to  the  front  on  the 
lower  ribs);  3,  "  Inhale  "  (the  children  filling  the  lungs 
till  the  ribs  press  out  against  the  fingers) ;  after  a  brief 
holding,  4,  "  Exhale  slowly,"  as  teacher  counts  1,  2,  3,  4; 
all  the  breath  to  be  out  of  the  bodj^  and  the  ribs  well  in  on 
the  last  count.  The  length  of  time  covered  by  the  hold 
and  the  counting  will  of  course  be  prolonged  gradually. 
This  may  be  used  to  advantage  as  an  all  school  drill  at 
any  time  in  the  day. 

APPRECIATION   OF    MUSIC 

A  very  important  phase  of  music  teaching  lies  in  the 
development  of  intelligent  listeners.  The  phonograph  is 
now  being  employed  as  an  educational  instrument.  It  is 
a  part  of  the  equipment  in  nearl}^  all  city  schools  and  the 
possibilities  for  culture  and  instruction  which  it  affords 
has  led  to  the  purchase  of  machines  by  smaller  schools. 
When  wisely  used  and  the  records  selected  with  discretion, 
such  machines  are  of  inestimable  value.  The  children 
become  familiar  with  many  compositions  which  they 
would  other^vise  never  hear;  a  deeper  love  for  the  various 
kinds  of  good  music  is  instilled  and  discriminating  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  children  is  developed.  Such  ma- 
chines are  of  practical  assistance  in  marching  and  as  an 
accompaniment  to  many  games.  At  the  present  time 
arrangements  may  be  made  with  dealers  whereby  ma- 


348  The  Rural  School 

chines  can  be  purchased  upon  most  reasonable  terms. 
A  word  of  caution  with  reference  to  records  should  be 
given.  As  it  is  possible  to  lower  a  child's  taste  for  good 
literature  by  means  of  sensational  novels,  so  also  is  it 
possible  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  music  which  is  poor  or 
worthless.  Classical  music,  so-called,  need  not  be  any 
less  attractive  than  the  cheaper  sort.  Many  of  the 
great  masters  have  composed  selections  which  children 
will  enjoy  just  as  much  as  the  popular  rag-time  tunes. 
In  selecting  records  or  music,  if  you  are  in  doubt,  ask 
some  musician  for  the  names  of  compositions  which  are 
"  good  music  "  and  possess  melodies  that  will  really  ap- 
peal to  the  children  and  the  ordinary  listeners.  It  is  not 
safe  to  trust  the  ordinary  salesmen  of  records,  since  no 
musical  knowledge  is  required  for  such  a  position.  Trau- 
merei  by  Schumann;  the  Intermezzo  from  Cavalleria 
Rusticana;  Rubinstein's  Melody  in  F  and  scores  of  the 
airs  from  the  operas  and  oratorios  together  with  the  folk 
songs  of  the  various  nations  will  always  please  any  au- 
dience;  and  best  of  all  they  are  melodies  that  wear. 

Frank  A.   Beach, 

Director  of  Music, 
Kansas  Stale  Normal  College,  Emporia,  Kansas', 


Chapter   IX 

PHYSICAL    SCIENCE 

INTEREST   OF    THE   SUBJECT 

Haedly  a  subject  in  the  curriculum  offers  the  rural 
teacher  more  practical  and  useful  material  than  does 
physical  science.  To  very  many  high  school  graduates 
the  mention  of  physics  brings  to  the  mind  only  confused 
notions  of  mathematical  exercises,  but  little  understood, 
the  whole  idea  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  discomfort 
and  antagonism  —  all  thankfully  escaped  at  the  end  of 
the  course.  Yet  the  child  is  continually  surrounded 
with  physical  phenomena,  which,  if  properly  explained, 
may  become  intensely  interesting,  and  children  from  the 
fifth  to  the  eighth  grades  are  usually  eager  to  have  the 
"  whys  "  of  their  physical  environment  explained.  In 
fact,  it  is  often  found  that  children  of  this  age  are  more 
easily  interested  in  physics  than  when  they  have  reached 
the  last  years  of  the  high  school.  Furthermore,  the 
majority  of  the  grade  pupils  leave  school  before  reaching 
physics  in  a  high  school  course. 

Following  is  a  list  of  experiments  and  demonstrations 
which  can  be  performed  with  very  little  apparatus  which 
may  add  wonderfully  to  the  interest  of  the  school.  The 
list  is  merely  suggestive.  As  much,  or  more,  depends  on 
the  teacher  as  on  the  experiment,  and  each  teacher  must 
arrange,  devise,  and  select  those  demonstrations  in  which 
he  himself  is  interested,  if  he  is  to  interest  his  pupils. 

349 


350  The  Rural  School 

Two  lessons  are  given  in  some  detail.  Children  should 
be  permitted  to  ask  questions  during  the  lesson.  They 
will  ask  many  which  it  will  be  impossible  to  answer,  but 
let  the  teacher  answer  as  many  as  possible  and  say  frankly 
that  he  does  not  know  the  answers  to  the  others. 

LESSON   I:  WHY   HOT    AIR    GOES    UP    THE    CHIMNEY 

We  all  know  that  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  grate  of  the 
stove  and  through  the  fire  and  up  the  chimney,  but  can 
we  tell  why  the  air  goes  up  the  chimney  when  it  is  hot? 
Let  us  stop  a  minute  and  find  out  what  the  air  is  made 
of.  We  usually  think  of  air  as  some  thin,  invisible  sub- 
stance which  occupies  all  space  about  us  which  is  not 
filled  with  some  more  solid  substance.  But  if  we  could 
see  the  air  with  a  vision  a  great  deal  more  acute  than  that 
made  by  the  most  powerful  microscope,  we  should  find 
the  air  made  up  of  a  great  many  fine  particles  all  moving 
about  among  each  other.  Though  these  particles  are  so 
numerous  and  so  closely  crowded  together,  they  seem  to 
be  trying  to  avoid  one  another;  but  they  are  flying  so 
rapidly  that  they  are  continually  rumiing  into  each  other 
and  crowding  each  other  out  of  the  way.  It  is  just  as  if 
every  person  in  a  crowded  room  should  try  to  rim  with 
all  his  might  in  a  direction  different  from  that  of  any  one 
else.  Of  course  there  would  be  a  good  many  collisions 
and  a  good  many  changes  in  directions  for  each  person. 
The  difference  between  hot  air  and  cold  air  is  just  this: 
In  the  hot  air  these  particles  are  flying  about  a  great  deal 
more  rapidly  and  striking  each  other  much  harder  and 
more  frequently  than  in  cold  air.  For  this  reason  they 
push  each  other  away  so  that  there  are  not  so  many  of 
them  in  a  given  space  as  there  are  in  cold  air. 

Now  we  are  ready  to  see  why  hot  air  goes  up  the 


Physical  Science  351 

chimney.  Suppose  we  had  a  large  "  teeter  board  "  and 
eight  bo3^s  should  get  on  it,  four  on  one  end  and  four  on 
the  other.  If  they  are  of  the  same  size,  the  board  would 
just  balance;  but  suppose  the  boys  on  one  end  begin  to 
push  and  shove  each  other  until  one  or  more  of  them  fall 
off,  what  will  happen?  The  two  or  three  will  fly  up,  of 
course,  because  they  are  lighter  than  the  four  boys  on  the 
other  end.  Now  that  is  w^hat  happens  to  the  hot  air. 
We  say  that  hot  air  is  lighter  than  cold  air.  It  is  hghter 
just  as  two  or  three  boys  are  lighter  than  four  boys. 
Each  air  particle  is  just  as  heavy  as  when  cold,  but  when 
they  get  hot,  they  push  each  other  away  so  that  not  so 
many  of  them  are  left  m  the  same  space.  Then  the  same 
thing  happens  to  them  as  happens  to  the  boys  left  on  the 
light  end  of  the  "  teeter  board."  The  cold,  heavy  air 
from  outside  pushes  in  at  the  grate  and  forces  the  light 
air  up  to  the  top  of  the  chimney,  just  as  the  four  boys  on 
one  end  of  the  "  teeter  board  "  forced  the  two  or  three 
boys  up  as  high  as  the  board  would  carry  them. 

The  same  thing  applies  to  the  hot  air  outside  the  stove. 
It  acts  as  if  it  were  trying  to  get  up  to  the  ceiling,  but  it 
is  really  trying  to  get  down  to  the  floor,  only  the  cold 
air  is  heavier  and  so  gets  under  it  and  pushes  it  up. 
Whenever  hot  air  rises,  the  same  principle  holds  good, 
namely,  it  is  being  pushed  up  by  cold  air. 

LESSON  n:    PHYSIOLOGY 

In  our  last  lesson  we  talked  about  the  particles  of  which 
air  is  composed.  We  said  that  they  were  very  small  and 
were  moving  about  very  rapidly.  To-day  let  us  talk 
about  the  difference  between  these  particles,  for  they 
are  not  all  alike.  If  we  should  put  four  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  with  a  bushel  of  beans  and  mix  them  thoroughly 


352  The  Rural  School 

together,  we  would  have  something  to  represent  the  air. 
The  beans  mixed  all  through  the  corn  would  represent 
one  kind  of  air  particles  called  oxygen,  while  the  corn 
would  represent  another  kind  called  nitrogen.  Although 
there  is  only  one  fourth  as  much  oxygeii  as  nitrogen,  yet 
the  oxygen  is  much  more  important  to  us. 

Other  substances  besides  the  air  are  made  up  of  very 
small  particles.  We  shall  learn  the  name  of  one  of  these 
and  see  why  oxygen  is  so  important  to  us.  This  other 
substance  about  which  we  wish  to  talk  is  called  carbon. 
It  is  found  in  everything  that  ever  grew  or  had  life.  All 
plants  and  animals  contain  some  carbon  particles.  When 
carbon  and  oxygen  are  cold  they  may  come  against  one 
another  and  move  away  again  without  seeming  to  make 
any  change  upon  either.  But  if  they  are  hot  a  very  dif- 
ferent result  is  .seen,  for  then  two  particles  of  oxygen 
will  seize  one  particle  of  carbon  and  the  three  cling 
tightly  together.  This  makes  an  entirely  new  substance. 
It  is  a  gas  like  oxygen  or  nitrogen  and  will  mingle  with 
them  in  the  air.  If  we  should  mix  a  handful  of  oats  with 
the  four  bushels  of  corn  and  the  one  bushel  of  beans,  the 
oats  might  represent  the  particles  of  the  new  substance, 
which  is  called  carbon-dioxide.  When  the  carbon  and 
oxygen  fly  together  to"  form  this  new  substance,  they 
become  much  warmer  than  before. 

Experiment:  Suppose  I  hold  this  piece  of  paper  up  in 
the  room.  The  paper  is  made  of  wood  which,  of  course, 
was  alive  once,  and  so  contains  carbon.  The  oxygen  in 
the  air  blows  against  this  carbon  but  does  not  affect  it, 
because  they  are  both  cool.  But  suppose  I  hold  the 
flame  of  a  match  against  the  paper.  This  will  heat  the 
oxygen  in  the  air  where  it  touches  the  paper  and  at  once 
the  carbon  in  the  paper  and  the  oxygen  in  the  air  begin 
to  fly  together  to  form  carbon-dioxide,  and  at  the  same 


Physical  Science  353 

time  they  get  very  warm.  We  say  that  the  paper  is 
burning.  Now,  suppose  I  put  this  piece  of  burning  paper 
into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  and  close  the  mouth.  The 
paper  soon  begins  to  burn  with  a  low  blue  flame  and  then 
goes  out  altogether.  If  I  put  a  second  burning  piece  into 
the  bottle,  it  goes  out  the  instant  it  gets  into  the  bottle. 
The  explanation  is  just  this:  The  flame  was  caused  by 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  bottle  uniting  with  the  car- 
bon in  the  paper.  When  the  oxygen  was  nearly  gone, 
the  flame  was  low  and  blue,  and  when  it  was  quite  ex- 
hausted, the  flame  went  out  altogether. 

Our  breathing  of  air  is  in  many  ways  like  the  burning 
of  this  paper.  We  eat  some  part  of  a  plant  or  animal  as 
food  and  this  contains  carbon.  The  blood  carries  the 
carbon  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  — -  let  us  suppose  to  a 
muscle  in  the  arm.  Then  we  breathe  air  into  the  lungs, 
the  oxygen  from  the  air  soaks  through  the  lung  walls 
and  the  blood  carries  it  all  over  the  body,  —  part  of  it 
to  the  muscle  in  the  arm.  Then  suppose  I  want  to  move 
my  arm,  what  happens?  A  message  starts  from  my 
brain  and  travels  along  a  nerve  to  the  muscle  in  the  arm 
and,  when  it  reaches  the  carbon  and  oxygen  in  the  arm, 
it  has  the  same  effect  that  the  flame  from  the  match  had 
on  the  paper.  It  causes  the  carbon  and  oxygen  to  fly 
together  and  form  carbon-dioxide,  this  causes  heat  just 
as  in  the  burning  paper.  In  this  way  the  body  may  be 
warmer  than  the  surrounding  air.  But  more  than  crea- 
ting heat,  when  the  carbon  and  the  oxygen  unite,  they 
cause  the  muscles  to  move  and  that  moves  the  arm. 
This  is  an  explanation  of  why  rumiing  causes  one  to 
breathe  more  rapidly.  A  great  deal  of  motion  like  run- 
ning requires  the  union  of  a  great  deal  of  carbon  and 
oxygen  and  so  we  have  to  breathe  rapidly  in  order  to 
supply  the  oxygen. 


354  The  Rural  School 

Let  us  return  to  the  burning  paper  in  the  bottle.  When 
the  oxygen  in  the  bottle  was  used  up,  the  flame  burned 
low  and  went  out.  Imagine  a  bottle  large  enough  to 
hold  a  person.  What  would  happen,  if  a  person  instead 
of  paper  were  put  into  the  bottle?  When  the  oxygen 
supply  ran  low,  there  would  be  no  more  of  it  to  unite 
with  the  carbon  and  the  fires  of  the  body  would  burn 
lower  and  lower  and,  if  the  oxygen  were  entirely  cut  off, 
they  would  finally  go  out.  That  does  not  very  often 
happen,  but  how  many  people  sleep  in  rooms  with  the 
windows  closed  or  open  a  very  little  way,  so  that  the 
fires  of  the  body  must  burn  low.  Many  people  think 
that  fresh  air  means  cold  air,  but  we  can  see  from  this 
that  fresh  air  means  air  containing  plenty  of  oxygen 
whether  it  is  warm  or  cold. 

LESSON  III:   AIR    PRESSURE 

Another  lesson  may  be  given  on  the  weight  and  pres- 
sure of  the  air.  Every  fifteen  cubic  feet  of  air  weighs 
about  a  pound.  One  of  the  simplest  experiments  to 
demonstrate  air  pressure  is  to  place  the  tongue  against 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  try  to  draw  it  down  without 
letting  air  get  above  it.  It  is  air  pressing  against  it 
which  seems  to  hold  the  tongue  against  the  roof  of  the 
mouth. 

Atmospheric  pressure  may  also  be  shown  by  filling  a 
tumbler  level  full  of  water  and  pressing  over  the  top  a 
piece  of  cardboard.  If,  while  holding  the  cardboard 
firmly  against  the  glass,  the  tumbler  be  inverted,  the 
cardboard  may  not  fall  for  several  minutes,  —  till  it  is 
soaked  through.  The  air  pressure  holds  it  up.  Another 
good  illustration  may  be  had  by  soaking  a  piece  of  leather 
to  which  a  string  has  been  attached  near  the  center. 


Physical  Science  355 

Press  the  leather  against  a  smooth  rock  or  a  piece  of  thick 
glass  and  observe  how  it  may  be  Hfted  by  means  of  the 
string.  It  is  not  the  string  which  pulls  the  rock  up,  but 
the  air  under  pushing  it  up. 

SUBJECTS    FOR    OTHER    LESSONS 

Following  is  a  suggestive  list  of  subjects  which  may  be 
treated  as  in  the  lessons  above.  The  teacher  should 
remember  that  he  is  under  no  obligation  to  stay  strictly 
within  the  realm  of  physics.  It  is  that  which  will  be  of 
help  to  children,  not  the  subjects  of  a  curriculum,  which 
are  to  be  taught,  and  whether  it  is  physics,  chemistry,  biol- 
ogy, geography,  or  what  not  makes  little  final  difference. 
Teach  the  child  the  things  he  wishes  and  ought  to  know 
about  his  physical  surroundings. 

I.   Expansio7i  Due  to  Heat. 

1.  Thermometers,  construction,  use;  temperature  of 
a  schoolroom;  temperature  of  boiling  water;  tempera- 
ture at  which  water  freezes;  things  which  affect  tempera- 
ture, —  latitude,  altitude,  evaporation,  etc. 

2.  Things  from  which  thermometers  may  be  made  — 
mercury,  spirits,  w^ater,  steel. 

3.  Expansion  of  iron  —  wagon  tires,  railroad  irons, 
boiler  rivets. 

II.  Expansion  Due  to  Cooling. 

Floating  ice;  bursting  water  pipes;  the  burst  water 
bucket;   a  stick  in  the  rain  barrel. 

III.  Making  of  Charcoal  and  Coke. 
The  kiln;   uses  in  stoves;   furnaces,  etc. 

IV.  The  Lime  Kiln. 

Lime  as  shells  of  animals;  limestone;  the  quarry; 
solubility  in  water;   hard  water;   lime  in  soils. 

V.  Cement  Industries. 


356  The  Rural  School 

The  limestone;  the  shale;  the  mixing;  the  burning; 
the  grinding;  the  uses  —  sidewalks,  water  tanks,  fence 
posts,  blocks  for  foundations,  building  houses. 

VI.  Water  Wheels. 

Kinds  —  Overshot,  undershot,  breast  wheel,  turbine; 
uses  —  for  mills,  factories,  electrical  machinery. 

VII.  Windmills. 

Construction;  kinds;  why  it  moves;  uses  —  pumping 
water,  grinding  feed,  etc. 

VIII.  Physical  Phenomena. 

1.  Study  clouds,  rain,  hail,  dew,  frost,  snow,  evapora- 
tion,   condensation. 

2.  Keep  daily  records  of  thermometer;  study  daily 
forecasts  of  United  States  weather  bureau;  discuss  value 
to  farmers  and  seamen, 

3.  Study  about  lightning,  thunder,  Franklin  and  his 
kite,  lightning  rods  made  out  of  fence  wire  well  grounded 
and  sharpened  to  fine  points. 

IX.  Water  Supply. 

In  country,  in  cities;  wells,  their  location;  drinking 
water  for  school;  cisterns;  keeping  water  pure  by  aera- 
tion; springs  —  cause;   diseases  spread  by  impure  water. 

X.  The  Sun. 

1.  Compare  with  earth,  as  to  size,  shape,  heat;  influ- 
ence of  each  on  the  other. 

2.  The  source  of  heat  and  light,  a.  Heat,  wave  mo- 
tion, conduction,  convection;  6.  Light,  wave  motion, 
speed,  absorption,  reflection,  mirrors,  lenses,  prisms. 

3.  Effect  of  sun  rays  on  man,  earth,  plants,  water; 
the  perpendicular  rays;   the  slanting  rays. 

XI.  Air  Pressure  and  Expansion. 

Pumps,  water  and  bicycle;  bicycle  and  automobile 
tires;   air  brakes  on  cars. 

XII.  Principle  of  Still. 


Physical  Science  357 

In  making  alcohol,  gasoline,  coal  oil;  in  making  per- 
fumery (by  distilling  alcohol  on  flower  petals). 

XIII.  Crystallizatio7i  of  Substances. 

Illustrations:  alum  solution  and  a  string,  rock  candy, 
snowflakes. 

XIV.  Oxidization  of  Iron. 

Uses  of  tin  plate:   galvanized  iron,  wire,  tanks,  etc. 

W.  G.  Lewis, 

Kansas  State  Normal  School. 

The  following  is  offered  as  an  illustration  of  the  way 
in  which  stories  may  be  used  to  teach  the  facts  about 
physical  phenomena. 

THE   FAIRY   CHILDREN   OF  THE   OCEAN 

One  hot  summer's  afternoon,  away,  way  out  in  the  ocean 
Old  Mother  Ocean  was  washing,  "  swish-a-swashy,  swish-a- 
swashy,"  washing  the  shores  of  her  islands.  Her  children  were 
out  playing  and  she  said  to  them,  "  Don't  go  far  away,  I  am  too 
busy  to  follow  after  you."  But  it  was  so  very  hot  that  it  fairly 
made  them  hop  up  and  down,  so  one  of  the  older  ones  said, 
"  Let's  go  up  a  little  ways  in  our  tiny  balloons."  So  off  they 
started,  not  two  or  three,  but  millions  of  them.  They  did  not  ex- 
pect to  go  so  far,  but  up  and  up  they  went,  away  up  into  the 
sky,  and  when  they  were  started,  they  could  not  stop  until  they 
had  reached  the  blue  sky,  ever  and  ever  so  high.  Soon  they  began 
to  be  very  cold,  and  the  wind  carried  them  off  over  the  land. 
They  were  far  away  from  home  and  some  of  the  little  fellows 
began  to  cry,  their  feet  were  so  cold.  Now,  what  do  you  think 
happened?  Some  of  the  older  ones  took  the  little  fellows  into 
their  balloons  and  they  soon  started  down.  Their  balloons 
were  so  heavy  they  could  not  sail  any  more  so  down  they  came, 
head  over  heels,  helter-skelter,  topsy-turvy,  every  which  way; 
Johnny,  standing  on  the  porch,  was  looking  up  into  the  sky,  and 
as  one  of  these  big  balloons  hit  him  in  the  eye,  he  said,  "Oh,  what 
a  big  —  rain  drop!  " 


358  The  Rural  School 

Now  they  began  to  come  down,  just  whole  troops  of  them. 
Some  ran  down  the  roof  tlirough  the  gutter  into  the  cistern. 
Mary,  the  maid,  came  and  pmnped  up  a  great  many  of  them 
into  the  teakettle  and  set  tliem  on  the  hot  stove.  My,  but  it 
was  hot!  Hotter  than  it  had  been  at  liome.  They  began  to 
cry,  oh,  so  mournfully.    Did  you  ever  hear  them? 

Some  of  them  ran  into  the  ground  where  it  was  very  dark. 
They  kept  going  down,  down,  until  they  met  others,  and  they 
ran  along  together  until  they  came  to  a  place  where  they  could 
see  out.  It  was  a  well.  Now  what  do  you  suppose  happened? 
Well,  I'll  tell  you.  Whole  barrels  of  them  were  pumped  up  into 
the  water  tank  at  the  depot,  and  the  big  engine  came  steaming 
up  Sh  —  sh  — ^  ch  —  ch  —  and  stopped  right  at  the  tank.  The 
fireman  went  up  over  the  coal  in  the  tender,  took  hold  of  the 
chain,  pulled  down  the  spout,  and  in  they  went.  Then  the 
engineer  let  them  into  the  boiler  where  it  was  steaming  hot. 
They  did  not  know  where  they  were,  but  they  knew  it  was  hot 
—  the  hottest  place  they'd  ever  been  in,  and  they  began  to  try 
to  get  out.  They  began  to  crowd  and  push  in  all  directions. 
Once  the  engineer  pulled  a  cord ;  this  opened  a  little  door;  those 
near  it  gave  a  shriek,  and  out  they  were.  Then  he  pulled  a  big 
lever  and  let  many  of  them  into  a  big  box;  now  they  began  to 
push  on  the  piston  which  turns  the  big  wheels.  Push,  push, 
push,  the  wheels  began  to  turn,  the  train  began  to  move  and 
out  they  came,  going  high  up  into  the  air.  Some  were  so  happy 
they  began  to  play  ring-a-round-a-rosy.  Perhaps  you  have 
seen  them  playing  this  on  a  winter  morning. 

Some  of  them  that  came  down  from  the  sky  were  sulky,  and 
stayed  around  on  the  grass  and  weeds  all  night.  By  the  next 
morning  they  were  in  a  good  hirnior  and  thought  they  would 
play  a  trick  on  the  little  boys  and  girls  who  get  up  early;  so 
they  made  some  pretty  little  beads  which  shone  like  diamonds 
when  the  sun  came  up.  They  left  them  on  the  grass  and  weeds 
everywhere,  and  when  Johnny  went  out  to  get  some  of  them,  he 
only  got  his  feet  and  hands  wet;  for  when  he  tried  to  pick  them 
up,  they  stopped  shining  and  there  were  no  diamond  beads  at 
all.    The  next  night  some  of  them  thought  that  they  would  do 


Physical  Science  359 

a  more  wonderful  thing  than  make  diamond  beads-  so  they 
painted  pictures  on  the  windows,  pictures  of  houses,  trees  and 
birds.  John  and  Mary  thouglit  that  Jack  Frost  did  tlais,  but 
it  was  the  Fairy  Children  of  the  Ocean. 

The  wind  blew  some  of  these  fairies  away,  off  over  the  land 
and  up  the  side  of  a  mountain.  It  got  so  very  cold  that  they 
went  to  sleep  and  looked  just  as  if  they  were  dead.  There  they 
lay  aU  winter,  as  white  as  they  could  be.  But  when  the  spring 
came  with  liis  warm  sun,  he  said  to  the  little  Fairy  Children, 
"  Wake  up  now,  it  is  time  for  you  to  go  home."  So  one  little 
fellow  opened  his  eyes  and  then  another  and  another,  and 
every  one  of  them  began  to  scamper  down  the  mountain  side, 
running  to  the  rivulet,  then  to  the  brook,  —  to  the  creek,  then 
down  the  big  river  back  home  again  to  the  ocean;  and  there 
was  Old  Mother  Ocean  still  washing,  "  swish-a-swashy,  swish-a- 
s washy,"  washing  the  shores  of  her  islands. 


Chapter  X 

GEOGRAPHY 

Interest  and  Scope  of  Subject.  —  Of  all  the  studies  in 
the  whole  program,  there  is  none  which  can  be  made  more 
interesting  than  geography.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  it  a  study  of  real  things,  and  not 
merely  the  gleaning  of  facts  from  a  textbook.  The 
teacher  must  realize  that  the  study  of  geography  should 
not  be  the  learning  of  names  of  places  and  their  location 
on  a  map,  but  rather  a  study  of  the  earth's  surface  with 
the  life,  both  of  plants  and  animals  found  thereon.  This 
apparently  modest  scope  of  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
is  nevertheless  quite  comprehensive,  embracing  a  great 
field  for  study  and  information.  In  studying  the  earth's 
surface,  we  not  only  consider  the  land  with  its  mountains, 
hills,  valleys,  plains,  etc.,  and  the  water  with  its  seas, 
gulfs,  bays,  lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  but  also  climate,  winds, 
ocean  currents,  tides,  waves,  temperature,  products,  and, 
last  of  all,  man  and  his  occupations  and  relations  to  other 
created  things.  With  this  vast  field  for  exploration  and 
study,  surely  there  are  few  classes  but  can  be  interested 
in  some  of  its  features,  for  material  for  this  work  is  at  the 
very  door  of  the  rural  school. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR   ORAL  OR  PRIMARY  GEOGRAPHY 

1.  Begin  at  home  and  study  those  things  with  which 
the  pupils  are  somewhat  acquainted. 

360 


Geography  361 

2.  Teach  color,  distance,  direction,  distance  and  di- 
rection of  homes  from  the  schoolhouse. 

3.  Teach  the  seasons,  the  months  of  the  year,  the  days 
of  the  week. 

4.  Study  about  rain,  frost,  snow,  hail,  and  some  of 
their  effects  on  plants  and  animals. 

5.  Study  about  domestic  animals,  their  names,  food, 
uses.  The  following  outline  for  the  study  of  hogs  will 
illustrate  how  a  very  common  thing  may  suffice  for 
several  lessons  of  interesting  study  and  become  finally 
the  basis  of  a  good  composition. 

HOGS 

Breeds: 

Color  and  characteristics  of  each  breed. 
What  fed? 

When  and  where  sold? 
Where  shipped? 

By  whom  bought?    Market  price? 
Where  is  meat  sold? 
What  do  packers  do  with: 

Hams,   shoulders,  head,  ears,  tails,  ribs,  backbones, 

feet,  fat,  intestines,  sides,  etc.? 

This  work  may  be  carried  as  far  as  the  teacher  and  the 
class  are  able  to  go  and  time  will  permit.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  suit  the  work  to  the  ability  of  the  pupils. 

6.  Have  pupils  tell  all  they  know  about  the  wild  ani- 
mals of  the  locality,  the  wolf,  the  coyote,  the  rabbit,  the 
gopher,  the  prairie  dog,  etc. 

7.  Study  the  plants  of  the  locality,  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
alfalfa,  etc.  This  study  of  plants  may  extend  to  the 
finished  product;  as.  Wheat,  —  preparing  of  the  ground, 
selecting  of  the  seed,  sowing,  cultivating,  harvesting, 
stacking,  threshing,  marketing,  grinding,  breadmaking. 
Make  similar  outlines  for  corn  and  other  grains. 


362  The  Rural  School 

8.  "  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,"  by  Mary  and 
Elizabeth  Kirby,  will  furnish  information  for  lessons 
about  things  in  the  cupboard;  tea,  coffee,  rice,  sugar, 
and  so  forth. 

9.  The  use  of  simple  outline  maps  will  add  interest 
to  much  of  the  study  about  products. 

MAP  STUDY 

1.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  school  ground,  locating 
schoolhouse,  well,  coal  house,  hitching  posts,  etc. 

2.  Enlarge  the  above  map  so  as  to  include  the  section 
on  which  the  schoolhouse  stands.  Draw  section  lines 
double,  other  lines  single.  Locate  the  farms  and  homes 
on  this  section  and  any  other  things  of  interest. 

3.  Fill  into  the  above  map  any  streams,  ravines,  or 
"  draws  "  that  may  be  in  the  section.  Find  in  which 
direction  the  water  flows  from  this  section.  Encourage 
the  pupils  to  find  out  these  things  from  their  own  obser- 
vation. 

4.  The  map  may  be  enlarged  so  as  to  include  the  dis- 
trict. Learn  what  the  people  produce:  grains,  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  hogs,  fowl,  etc.  Each  one  of  these  prod- 
ucts may  become  the  subject  for  one  or  more  language 
lessons. 

Product  Maps.  —  If  on  this  map  are  pasted  the  pic- 
tures of  the  animals  raised  on  each  farm  and  the  grain 
and  grasses  grown  in  each  field,  it  will  add  much  interest 
to  the  work  and  prepare  the  way  for  a  more  extended 
study  along  the  same  line.  Following  the  suggestions 
given  above,  maps  may  be  made  of  the  county,  state, 
and  country.  Wlierever  possible,  use  the  actual  products 
for  pasting  on  these  maps,  e.  g.  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  rice, 
coffee,  tea,  coal,  lead,  salt,  etc. 


Geography  363 

THE  TEXT  REINFORCED 

Concrete  Illustrations.  —  The  first  lessons  of  most 
primary  geographies  contain  necessary  geographical  ideas 
which  can  be  taught  from  observation  better  than  from 
the  exclusive  use  of  the  textbook.  Teachers  should  learn 
a  lesson  from  the  experience  of  an  eminent  educator 
when  he  went  out  with  his  class  at  recess  and  studied 
geography  while  they  waded  in  the  marsh.  There  are 
miniature  capes,  bays,  islands,  and  peninsulas  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  marsh  or  creek;  and,  if  the  teacher  can 
get  a  class  to  see  these  in  their  real  forms,  he  will  be 
giving  to  them  first-hand  information.  This  teacher 
in  commenting  on  his  experience  with  his  geography  class 
says,  "  For  the  first  time  the  real  difference  between 
studying  about  things  through  the  medium  of  a  book, 
and  studying  things  themselves  without  the  medium  of 
a  book,  was  revealed  to  me." 

Conversation  and  objective  illustration  should  always 
accompany  the  use  of  the  textbook.  Air  in  motion,  rain, 
day  and  night,  and  the  seasons  are  all  objects  of  experi- 
ence, yet  they  need  to  be  re-observed  and  the  facts  about 
them  need  to  be  stated  before  the  knowledge  is  secure. 
Connect  the  real  things  with  the  story  of  the  book,  and 
make  use  of  the  children's  activity  in  examining,  repro- 
ducing, drawing,  and  describing.  Encourage  them  .to 
bring  to  the  school  specimens  of  rocks,  fossils,  Indian 
relics,  shells,  samples  of  different  kinds  of  wood,  in  fact, 
almost  anything  which  enforces  and  illustrates  the  les- 
son of  the  book.  Pictures  are  a  never-ending  source  of 
delight  and  they  are  found  in  abundance  in  every  good 
text  on  geography.  The  teacher  should  make  good  use 
of  those  found  in  the  book  and  reinforce  them  by  bringing 
to  the  class,  and  having  the  pupils  bring  others,  illustra- 


364  The  Rural  School 

ting  places  of  note  and  interest.  These  pictures  can  be 
gotten  from  books,  magazines,  postcards,  railroad  fold- 
ers, and  advertising  pamphlets. 

Imaginary  Journeys.  —  In  the  study  of  Niagara  Falls, 
the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  Yellowstone  Park, 
and  other  places  of  note,  very  interesting  lessons  may  be 
gotten  from  the  advertising  pamphlets  put  out  by  the 
railroad  companies.  These  can  be  had  for  the  asking  and 
may  serve  as  a  basis  for  an  imaginary  trip  through  South- 
ern California,  a  journey  through  the  Rockies,  etc. 
There  are  nearly  always  places  of  interest  in  one's  own 
county  or  state  which  may  be  illustrated  and  made  more 
real  by  the  use  of  postcards.  In  the  imaginary  journey 
lesson,  a  wall  map  showing  the  route  traveled  over  would 
be  good  to  have.  One  can  manage  this  by  making  a 
progressive  map  on  a  large  sheet  of  coarse  paper,  or  on 
the  blackboard,  if  there  is  room.  Keep  up  the  conversa- 
tional plan  all  the  way  through,  for  the  teacher  cannot 
know  where  the  children  are  in  their  thought  unless  they 
talk.  Drawing  is  the  best  expression  of  form  and  the 
ability  to  make  outline  maps  should  be  cultivated;  maps 
of  the  small  and  rather  simple  form  are  better  than  the 
extended,  complex  maps  of  irregular  shaped  states. 

ADVANCED   GEOGRAPHY 

In  studying  the  grand  divisions  some  regular  order 
should  be  observed.  The  following  outline  will  answer 
very  well,  and  it  will  be  found  especially  helpful  in  re- 
views. 

1.  Location  on  the  globe.  (This  presupposes  a  study 
of  the  globe  and  the  fixing  of  the  poles  and  equator.) 

2.  Relation  to  other  continents  and  to  the  ocean. 

3.  Extent,  size,  shape. 


Geography  365 

4.  Details  of  contour. 

5.  Large  surface  features,  e.  g.  mountains,  plains, 
valleys,   etc. 

6.  Climate. 

7.  Drainage,  e.  g.  rivers,  lakes,  and  inland  seas. 

8.  Forests  and  prairies. 

9.  Suitability  for  the  occupation  of  man. 

10.  Number  and  kinds  of  people.  Their  occupations, 
modes  of  living,  wealth,  homes,  inventions,  institutions, 
exports  and  imports,  domestic  animals,  factories,  etc. 

This  outline  may  be  modified  to  suit  a  coimtry,  a  sec- 
tion, or  a  state. 

Geography  and  History.  —  Geography  and  history 
should  go  hand  in  hand.  The  one  seems  to  reinforce  the 
other.  The  knowing  a  bit  of  the  history  of  a  city,  state, 
or  country,  helps  to  fix  and  hold  its  location  in  mind. 
"  Stories  of  India  "  read  while  studying  southern  Asia, 
will  help  to  impress  the  geography  of  this  country  and 
make  it  more  real.  There  are  many  such  books  that  will 
prove  excellent  aids  in  this  work  and  make  it  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  profitable  studies  offered  in  the 
whole  school  course. 


INDEX 


Abstraction,  295. 

Accession  book  for  library, 
132,  133. 

Addition,  how  teach  by  use  of 
spUnts,  300;  of  fractions, 
how  teach,  301 ;  a  form  for 
analysis  of,  306. 

Adenoids,  33. 

Advanced  studies,  teacher's 
knowledge  of,  47. 

Agriculture,  books  on,  138; 
in  Rural  Schools,  Chapter 
XVI,  169;  difficulties  in 
teaching,  169;  material 
suited  for  rural  schools, 
169;  department  of,  170; 
outline  for  rural  school,  171; 
a  lesson  plan,  173. 

Air,  pure,  need  of  revival  for, 
37;  impure,  effects  of,  38; 
pressure,  354. 

Alderman,  Ex-Supt.  L.  R., 
217. 

Alternation,  77. 

Amusements  and  occupations, 
books  on,  138. 

Analysis,  105;  in  writing,  317. 

Appearance,  of  teacher,  54; 
physical,  58. 

Application  for  school,  by  let- 
ter, 53;   in  person,  54. 

Appreciation  of  Music,  347. 

Arbor  Day,  8. 

Arnold,  Dr.,  of  Rugby,  191. 

Art  Song  C^jcles,  342. 


Assignment  of  lesson,  90. 

Assignments,  and  require- 
ments, definiteness  in,  as  aid 
to  govermnent,  145. 

Atmosphere,  pressure  of,  354. 

Attention,  holding,  82;  se- 
curing, 82;  a  means  of  in- 
citing interest,  82. 


B 


Beach,  Frank  A.,  348. 

Beads,  wooden  for  busy  work, 
284. 

Bible  stories  in  Hst  of  books, 
135. 

Bishop,   Ex-Supt.  E.  C,  178. 

Blackboards,  35;  use  of  in 
music,  338. 

Boarding  place,  58. 

Book,  danger  of  using  too 
soon,  262. 

Books,  agricultural,  hst  of, 
138;    reference,   135. 

Boon,  Mr.,  on  centrahzing  or 
consolidation  in  Hist,  of  Ed., 
226. 

BoTT,  E.  C,  what  he  accom- 
plished in  Louisiana,  209- 
214. 

Breathing  exercises  in  music, 
347. 

Brownlee,  Miss,  on  person- 
ality, 61 ;  on  teaching  mor- 
als,' 163. 

Bulletins,  agricultural,  170. 

Business,  knowledge  of,  52. 


367 


368 


Ind 


ex 


Busy  work,  what  and  how, 
Chapter  IV,  282;  object  of, 
282 ;  how  make  material  for, 
285;  for  older  pupils,  291. 


Call  for  upright  men,  159. 

Cannery,  12. 

Canning  company,  Cedron 
school,  212. 

Canning  outfit,  177. 

Carbon,  352. 

Carbon-dioxide,  352. 

Cards,  use  of,  in  reading,  260. 

Cary,  Supt.  C.  P.,  on  heating 
and  ventilation,  17. 

Character,  end  of  discipline, 
148. 

Charles  II,  profligate  times  of, 
115. 

Child  Life,  a  first  reader,  128. 

Children's  Hour,  205. 

Children's  Old  and  New  Sing- 
ing Games,  342. 

City  schools,  comparison  of 
rural  schools  with,  2;  what 
has  been  accomplished  by,  2. 

Classes,  reduction  of  number 
of,  76;  movement  of,  88; 
signals  for,  88. 

Classification  report,  methods 
of  procedure  without,  68. 

Classifying  pupils  aright,  193. 

Closets,  sanitary,  32. 

Clubs,  178;  in  Missouri,  179; 
tomato  growing,  211;  corn 
growing,  212;  pig  raising, 
212. 

Color  work,  292. 

Commercial  forms  and  prac- 
tices, 307. 

Committee  of  Twelve,  report  of, 
225, 


Common  branches,  knowledge 
of,  47. 

Comparing  quantities  by 
measuring  in  teaching  num- 
bers, 297. 

Concentration,  109. 

Confidence  in  pupils,  151. 

Connecticut,  consolidation  in, 
233. 

Consolidated  school,  Cedron, 
209. 

Consohdation,  Chapter  XIX, 
222;  changed  conditions 
which  have  led  to,  222;  a 
centralizing  tendency,  226; 
economy  of,  226;  social 
value  of,  226;  objections 
and  answers,  227;  reports 
from  several  states  concern- 
ing, 229;  in  Indiana,  230;  in 
Ohio,  230-231 ;  in  Connecti- 
cut, 233;  in  New  Jersey,  233; 
modified  form  of,  in  Iowa, 
233;    in    Minnesota,  235. 

Consumption,  cause  of,  28; 
how  disseminated,  28. 

Contests,  178;  prizes  for,  in 
Missouri,  180;  cooking,  in 
Missouri,  180-182;  instruc- 
tion for,  181. 

Contract,  teacher's,  impor-  • 
tance  of,  52. 

Conventional  designs,  332. 

Cooperation,  pupil's,  in  man- 
agement of  school,  166; 
teachers,  in  superintend- 
ent's plans,  196. 

Copies,  making  for  writing, 
313. 

Copy,  use  of,  312. 

Corn,  how  to  study,  173. 

Cornell,  model  schoolhouse  on 
campus  of,  20. 

Corporal  punishment  as 
viewed  by  the  courts,  149. 


Index 


369 


Correct  habits  in  language, 
266. 

Country,  viewpoint  of,  182. 

County  examination,  prepar- 
ing for,  77. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  hymn-sing- 
ing times  of,  115. 

Cut-up  maps  for  seat  work, 
294. 

D 

Daily  program.  Chapter  VIII, 

71. 
Deduction,  99. 
Designs,  elementary,  289. 
Development,  stages  of  child's, 

112;  of  body,  113;  of  mind, 

113. 
Dickson,  Prof.  Virgil  E.,  216. 
Dictation  exercises,  280. 
Discipline,     continuous,     148; 

end  of,  148. 
Disease,   precautions  against, 

29. 
Diseases,  contagious,  prevent- 
ing spread  of,  29 ;  of  eye,  29. 
District    unit,   223;   evils   of, 

224-225. 
Division,  how  teach,  by  use 

of  splints,   300;    forms  for 

analysis  of,  306. 
Domestic  science  contests,  in 

Nebraska,  178;  in  Missouri, 

179. 
Dominos,  use  of  in  busy  work, 

288. 
Dramatization,    place   for   in 

modern  house,  22. 
Drawing,   Chapter  VII,  319; 

to  scale  as  seat  work,  293;  a 

means   of   expression,    319; 

beginning  early,  319;    how 

begin,   320;    materials   for, 

320;  Une,  321;  mass,  321;  of 


type  forms,  321;  of  scenes, 
325;  for  different  months, 
326;  conventional  designs 
in,  332. 

Drinking  water,  31. 

Dust,  removal  of,  30. 

Duties  of  teacher,  Chapter 
XVII,  184;  to  district,  184; 
to  pupils,  193;  to  county 
superintendent,  196;  to 
neighborhood,  198;  to  self, 
199. 


E 


Economy  in  modern  house,  15. 

Electric  lights  in  schoolhouses, 
25. 

Emporia  plan  of  modern 
schoolhouse,  21-23. 

Equipment,  of  house,  26; 
physical,  of  teacher,  45; 
mental,  of  teacher,  47. 

Ethics,  school.  Chapter  XV, 
159;  need  of  teaching,  159; 
unsuccessful  attempts  at 
teaching,  160;  methods  of, 
160;  formal  plan  desirable 
in,  161;  Kansas  Public 
School  course  in,  165. 

Examples,  practical,  for  coun- 
try schools,  307. 

Experiment,  burning  paper, 
352. 

Expressing  thought  in  reading, 
258. 

Eyes,  diseases  of,  29;  defect- 
ive, 34. 

Eyesight,  testing  of,  34, 


F 


Fairchild,  Stipt.  E.  T.,  on 
ethical  teaching,  167;  on 
consolidation,  229. 


370 


Index 


Fairy  Children  of  the  Ocean,  357. 

Fairy  tales,  list  of,  137. 

Farm  Life  Readers,  129. 

Fathers'  Day,  205. 

Fatigue,  waves  of,  74. 

Figures,  teaching  skill  in  ma- 
nipulation of,  298. 

First  day,  Chapter  VII,  63; 
preparation  for,  63;  meth- 
ods of  procedure  on,  65. 

Fhes,  breeding  places  of,  32. 

Form  work,  292. 

Forms  for  number  work,  303. 

Fractions,  teaching  of,  301. 

Freedom,  love  of,  114. 

Fundamentals,  formal  work  in, 
300. 

Furnaces,  for  rural  schools,  18. 


G 


Games  and  Plays,  123. 

Garden,  winter,  177. 

Gardens,  school,  175. 

Geography,  Chapter  X,  360; 
books  of,  139;  interest  and 
scope  of  subject,  360;  oral, 
360;  concrete  illustrations, 
363;  text  reinforced,  363; 
advanced,  364;  and  history, 
365. 

Germ  theory  of  disease,  28. 

German  horse,  119. 

Giant's  Stride,  122. 

GiLHAMS,  Supt.  H.  S.,  on  con- 
solidation, 229. 

Gladstone,  William  E.,  57. 

Goal,  of  the  recitation,  99;  of 
instruction,  100. 

Government,  school.  Chapter 
XIV,  143. 

Geaham,  a.  B.,  on  consolida- 
tion, 231. 

Grammar,  elementary  as  lan- 
guage work,  269. 


Grounds,  size  of,  6;  plans  of, 

7;  improving  in  Iowa  school, 

214. 
Grouping  objects,  in  number 

work,  298. 
Growth,      intellectual,      194: 

moral,  195. 


H 

Harris,  Wm.  T.,  on  consolida- 
tion, 233. 

Hays'  plan  of  modern  school- 
house,  20. 

Health,  importance  of,  45. 

Hearing,  testing  of,  34. 

Heating  of  schoolhouse,  17. 

Heating  and  ventilating  sys- 
tems, 40. 

Help,  giving  judicious,   194. 

Heroes,  influence  of,  167. 

History  and  biography,  books 
of,  140. 

HoELCEL,  Mrs.  Emily  K., 
what  she  accomplished  in 
Kansas,  203-209. 

Home  economics  contest,  182. 

Home  work,  credit  for,  217.    ' 

Honor,  placing  pupUs  on,  150. 

Hookworm,  33. 

Horizontal  bar,  120. 

Hot  air,  lesson  on,  in  chapter 
on  Physical  Science,  350. 

Houses,  Better,  13;  hygienic 
considerations  in,  16;  heat- 
ing of,  17;  ventilating  of, 
17;  plans  of,  21-26. 

HuFTALEN,  Mrs.,  what  she 
accompUshed  in  Page 
County,  Iowa,  214. 

Hutchinson,  Dr.  Woods,  on 
play,  112. 

Hygiene  and  sanitation, 
school,  Chapter  IV,  28. 


Index 


371 


Ideals,  opportunity  to  inspire 
pupils  to  high,  201. 

Imitation,  a  factor  in  work  of 
beginners,  103. 

Inattention,  83. 

Incentives,  use  of,  154;  good, 
characteristics  of ,  154;  liable 
to  abuse,  155;  of  last  resort, 
155;   best,  156. 

Induction,  98. 

Industrial  center,  school  as,  12. 

Industrial  credits  for  home 
work  given  by  A.  I.  O'Reilly, 
218. 

Influence,  teacher's  extension 
of,  202. 

Inliibition,  two  methods  of, 
152. 

Instruction  for  boys  in  con- 
tests, 181. 

Intellectual  growth,  judicious 
direction  of  pupils',  194-195. 

Interest,  arousing  pupils'  in 
recitation,  82. 

Iowa,  improvement  of  play- 
grounds in,  215;  modified 
form  of  consolidation  in, 
233. 


Janitor  work,  pupils  paid  for 
doing,  205. 

Jean  Mitchell's  School,  202. 

Journeys,  imaginary  in  geog- 
raphy, 364. 

Judging,  105. 

K 

Kansas,  what  has  been  ac- 
complished in  rural  schools 
of,  203. 


Keeping  everyone  busy,  145. 

Kent,  Prof.  H.  L.,  on  work 
in  agriculture  for  rural 
schools,  171. 

Kern,  0.  J.,  on  Arbor  day,  8. 

Kerr,  Willis  H.,  on  how  to 
organize  a  library,  132. 

King,  Henry  Churchill,  on 
psychology  of  motor  ac- 
tivities, 152. 

Kirk,  President  J.  R.,  24. 

Kirksville  plan  of  schoolhouse, 
24. 

Knowledge,  pupil's,  supple- 
menting of,  85. 


Language  Work,  Chapter  III, 
266. 

Language,  correct  habits  of, 
266;  importance  of  study  of, 
266;  suggestions  as  to  proce- 
dure in  teaching,  266;  inci- 
dental study  of,  268;  how 
make  rules  for,  270;  obser- 
vational work  in,  272; 
proper,  272;  use  of.  pic- 
tures,  274. 

Leaf,  Miss  G.  M.,  list  of 
books  for  library  prepared 
by,  135. 

Learning  words,  255. 

Legends,  list  of,  137. 

Lesson,  studying  three  times, 
108. 

Lessons,  when  to  assign,  74; 
well  studied  as  an  aid  in 
government,  144;  subjects 
for  physical  science,  355. 

Letter  \\Titing,  276. 

Librarian,  132. 

Libraries,  traveling,  126. 

Library,  its  uses.  Chapter 
XIII,  125;  a  working,  127, 


372 


Index 


135;  room  for,  22;  impor- 
tance of,  125;  how  to  start, 
126;  tax,  126;  what  to  buy 
for,  127;  how  to  use,  130; 
preparing  a  place  for,  130; 
plan  of  organization,  132. 

Lighting  of  schoohoom,  18, 34, 

Literature,  books  of  for  li- 
brary, 139;  teaching  appre- 
ciation of  good,  264. 

Location  of  house,  5. 

LoNGAN,  Ex-Supt.  G.  B.,  his 
system  of  number  teaching, 
297. 

M 

Maintaining  good  name  of 
school,  186. 

Mann,  Horace,  regarding  dis- 
trict unit,  223. 

Map  study,  362. 

Materials,  for  busy  work,  how 
to  care  for,  290;  for  writing, 
312-314;   for  drawing,  320. 

Methods,  object,  topic,  lec- 
ture, question,  94-96;  So- 
cratic,  97;  word,  250. 

Minnesota,  modified  form  of 
consolidation  in,  235. 

Missouri,  agricultural  contests 
in,  179. 

Moisture,  need  of  in  air  of 
schoolroom,  43. 

Moral  teachers,  159. 

Mothers'  Day,  205. 

Motives  in  study,  110. 

Motor  activities,  psychology 
of,  151. 

Movement  in  writing,  316. 

Multiplication,  form  for  analy- 
sis of,  306. 

Music,  Chapter  VIII,  337;  im- 
portance of,  337;  equip- 
ment for,  338;  textbook, 
338;    use  of  blackboard  in 


teaching,  338;  use  of  pitch- 
pipe  in  teaching,  338;  teach- 
ing in  groups,  340;  reading  at 
sight,  344;  study  of  theory, 
345;  appreciation  of,  347. 
Myths,  list  of,  137. 

N 

Nature  books,  list  of,  137. 

Nature  study,  in  city  and 
country,  4;  and  agricul- 
ture,   170. 

Negation,  152. 

Nerves,  teacher's  need  of 
strong,  46. 

New  Jersey,  consolidation  in, 
233. 

Noon  lunch,  in  Washington, 
215. 

Norton  County  schoolhouse, 
19. 

Number  blocks,  288. 

Number  idea,  295;  develop- 
ment of,  296. 

Number  work,  material  for, 
284;  as  busy  work,  284-289. 

Numbers,  Chapter  V,  295; 
reading  and  writing,  298. 


O 


Oakerson,  Supt.  W.  M,,  on 
agricultural  contests  in  Mis- 
souri, 179. 

Observational  work  in  lan- 
guage, 272. 

Ohio,  consolidation  in,  231. 

Opening  exercises,  66. 

Opportunities,  lesser,  200; 
great,  201. 

Opportunity,  for  expression, 
value  of  in  ethics,  163;  of 
a  rural  teacher,  Chapter 
XVIII,  200. 


Index 


373 


Oral     lesson     in     geography, 

360. 
Order  and  period,  how  teach 

diiTerence,  299. 
Order  of  room,  88. 
Oregon,  credit  for  home  work, 

in  schools  of,  217. 
Outbuildings,  screening  of,  8. 
Oxygen,  experiment  to  teach 

facts  concerning,  352. 


Paper-cutting,  application  of, 
329;  conventional  designs 
for,  332. 

Paraphrasing  in  language 
work,  280. 

Parents'  Day,  205. 

Parke,  Prof.  L.  A.,  on  corpo- 
ral punishment,  149. 

Peg  boards,  directions  for  ma- 
king, 285. 

Pencils,  precautions  in  regard 
to,  30. 

Personality,  what  it  is,  56;  de- 
velopment of,  58;  physical 
element,  58;  mental  ele- 
ment, 60;  mora]  element, 
61;  how  to  improve  and 
maintain,  62;  of  the  teacher, 
as  a  factor  in  school  gov- 
ernment, 146. 

Perspective,  teaching  in  draw- 
ing, 322. 

Phonics,  teaching  of,  256. 

Physical  science,  Chapter  IX, 
349. 

Physical  vigor,  maintenance 
of,  58. 

Physical  well  being,  giving 
pupils  suggestions  as  to, 
195. 

Physiology,  a  lesson  in,  351. 


Pictures  in  language  work, 
274. 

Plans  for  day,  necessary  as  aid 
in  school  government,  144. 

Play,  spirit  of,  lost  in  country, 
3;  and  playgrounds,  Chap- 
ter XII,  112;  function  of, 
112;  school  should  pro^^de 
for,  114. 

Playground  apparatus,  119; 
for  rural  school,  123;  in 
Iowa  school,  215. 

Pla5'^ground  movement,  3. 

Playgrounds,  112. 

Playroom  in  schoolhouse  base- 
ment, 25. 

Plays  and  games,  making  use 
of,  in  government,  146. 

Plurals,  how  to  make  rules 
for,  270. 

Popular  Folic  Dances,  342. 

Position,  of  teacher,  89;  of 
pupils  in  writing,  315. 

Practice  teaching,  49. 

Preparing  for  next  lesson,  86. 

Prizes,  155. 

Product  map,  362. 

Professional  training,  teach- 
er's need  of,  48. 

Program,  for  first  day,  68; 
study,  72;  importance  of 
study,  73. 

Property,  school,  duty  of 
teachers  to  protect,  184. 

Property  mark  for  Ubrary, 
133. 

Punishment,  infliction  of,  147; 
as  method  of  inhibition, 
153. 

Pupils,  correcting  mistakes  of, 
85;  studying,  86;  placing 
on  honor,  150;  encouraging 
to  do  talking  in  teaching 
ethics,  164;  classifying  of, 
193. 


374 


Index 


Q 

Qualifications,  the  teacher,  his. 

Chapter  V,  45. 
Questions,   pupils  to  ask,   as 

device    of    recitation,    93; 

logical,  96;   elhptical,  97. 

R 

Readers,  supplementary,  263. 

Reading,  primary,  Chapters  I 
and  II,  245,  254;  impor- 
tance of,  245;  kinds  of,  246; 
oral,  246;  silent,  246;  what 
constitutes  good,  247;  aim 
of  all  methods  of,  248;  meth- 
ods of  teaching,  248;  alpha- 
betic method,  249;  the  best 
method,  249;  word  method, 
250;  sentence  method,  251; 
phonetic,  252;  phonic,  252; 
rational  method,  253;  a  bad 
habit  of,  254;  learning 
words,  255;  first  words  in, 
255:  use  of  cards,  260;  of 
lesson  to  class,  264;  helps, 
289.  ^ 

Reasoning,  105;  number  work 
to  develop,  305. 

Recess  Gang,  the,  116. 

Recitation,  Chapters  IX  and 
X,  81,  93;  three  functions 
of,  81;  seeming  attention 
during,  82;  for  whole  class, 
83;  purposes  of,  84;  con- 
clusions about,  87;  me- 
chanics of,  87;  movement 
of  classes  to  and  from,  88; 
order  of  room  during,  88; 
devices  of,  93;  methods  of, 
94;  oral  and  written,  94; 
variety  of,  94;  goal  of,  99. 

Record  of  issue  for  library, 
134. 


Records,  teacher's,  keeping 
accurate,  196. 

Reports,  importance  of  ma- 
king promptly,    196. 

Reproduction  stories,  279. 

Requirements,  definiteness  in, 
145;  showing  reasonable- 
ness of,  145. 

Responsibihty,  placing,  upon 
pupils,  166. 

Rhythm,  344. 

RoARK,  Mr.,  excerpts  from 
Method  in  Education  by, 
84. 

Rural  education,  a  brighter 
day  for,  4. 

Rural  life,  knowledge  of,  51. 

Rural  school,  a  laggard,  Chap- 
ter I,  1. 


S 


Salary,  opportunity  of  teacher 
to  earn,  200. 

Sanitary  closets,  32-33. 

Saving  time,  75. 

Scale  drawing  as  seat  work, 
293. 

School  and  home,  way  to 
unite,  217. 

School  City,  the,  165. 

School,  grounds,  plan  of,  7; 
plant,  11;  government, 
Chapter  XIV,  143;  govern- 
ment, importance  of,  143; 
government,  aids  to,  144; 
gardens,  175;  maintaining 
good  name  of,  186;  tests  of 
good,  187;  teacher's  duty 
to  teach  good,  187;  small 
contrasted  with  large,  222. 

Script,  transition  from  to  print, 
261. 

Seating  pupils,  35,  65. 

Seats  for  schoolroom,  27. 


Index 


375 


Seeds,  how  formed,  lesson  on, 
173. 

Signals  for  classes,  88. 

Silent  forces,  13. 

Singing,  rote,  341;  sight,  342. 

Site  and  grounds  of  school- 
house.  Chapter  II,  5. 

Slates,  precautions  in  regard 
to,  30. 

Sleepy-time  Stories,  a  book  for 
beginners,  129. 

SmaU  Songs  for  Small  Sing- 
ers, 342. 

Smith  system  of  heating,  40. 

Social  center,  school  as,  12,  22. 

Song  Development  for  Little 
Children,  342. 

Song  Primer,  The,  342. 

So7igs  of  the  Child  World,  342. 

Sound  mind  in  sound  body, 
45. 

Sounding  words,  258. 

SpelUng,  258_. 

Standardization,  of  schools  in 
Louisiana,  235;  of  schools  in 
Minnesota,  236;  of  schools 
in  Wisconsin,  237;  of  schools 
in  Missouri,  238;  of  schools 
in  Ilhnois,  239;  require- 
ments for,  240. 

Stories,  of  China,  how  to  use, 
131;  list  of  Bible,  135;  Ust 
for  library,  141;  reproduc- 
tion, 279. 

Study,  periods  for,  73;  how 
to,  101;  importance  of, 
101;  meaning  of,  101;  old 
plan,  101;  teaching  pupils 
how  to,  Chapter  XI,  101; 
teaching  beginners  to,  102; 
hints  on,  106;  use  of  differ- 
ent sense  organs  in,  106; 
a  thoughtful  process,  109; 
motives  in,  110;  strenuous, 
110;  business  of  the  school, 


192;  conditions  favorable 
for,  193;  Uttle  people  can- 
not,  282. 

Substitution,  apphcation  of 
principle  of,  154;  as  a  mode 
of  inliibition,  153. 

Subtraction,  a  form  for  analy- 
sis of,  306. 

Synonjrms  and  meaning  of 
words,  264. 

System  of  writing,  315. 


Tank,  pressure  in  basement, 
24. 

Tardiness,  188;  devices  for 
preventing,  189-190. 

Teacher,  cottage  of,  11;  his 
personality,  Chapter  VI,  56; 
iDcing  taught,  device  of  reci- 
tation, 93;  personality,  as 
factor  in  school  government, 
146;  extension  of  influence 
of,  202;  the  non-singing, 
338. 

Teaching,  practice,  49;  re- 
garding as  a  stepping  stone, 
200. 

Testing,  function  of  recitation, 
81. 

Tests  of  a  good  school,  187. 

Textbook,  not  in  hands  of  in- 
structor, 90;  for  music,  338. 

Tliinking,  right,  162;  number 
work  to  develop,  305. 

Thought  getting,  104. 

Time,  saving  of,  75;  element 
in  the  teaching  Ethics,  163. 

Toilet  rooms,  in  modern 
schoolhouse,  18;  in  Kirks- 
ville  house,  24. 

Tone  quality,  347. 

Tonsils,  enlarged,  33. 

Trained  teachers,  3. 


376 


Index 


Training,  professional,  48;  for 
rural  schools,  49;  function 
of  recitation,  81. 

Trees,  kind  to  plant,  9;  plant- 
ing of,  9;  for  western  plahis, 
10. 

Tuberculosis,  see  Consump- 
tion, 28. 

Turner,  Mr.  Clair,  on  Re- 
cess Gang,  116. 

Types,  three  of  schoolhouses, 
18.  _ 

Typhoid  fever,  29;  resulting 
from  lack  of  sanitation,  32. 


U 


Unit,  origin  of  district,  223; 
larger,  225;  social  value  of 
larger,  226. 


V 


Ventilation,  facts  regarding, 
37;  by  windows  and  doors, 
39;  modern  systems  of,  40. 


W 

Waste  in  work  of  schools, 
71. 

Water    closets,    screened,    8. 

Waterman-Waterbury  system 
of  heating,  41. 

Waves  of  fatigue,  74. 

Window  shades,  manipulation 
of,  35. 

Winter  garden,  177. 

Word  books,  how  make,  292. 

Words,  many  from  one,  292. 

Work  for  each  pupil,  72; 
thoughtful,  104. 

Workroom  in  modern  house, 
19. 

Write,  learning  to.  Chapter 
VI,  310. 

Writing,  an  art,  310;  first  les- 
sons, 311;  when  and  how 
much,  311;  materials,  how 
handled,  314;  position,  315; 
system,  315;  movement, 
316;  analysis  of,  317;  period, 
divisions  of,  318. 


16 


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